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<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h6 class="title">
<a name="math_toolkit.dist.stat_tut.weg.binom_eg.binom_conf"></a><a class="link" href="binom_conf.html" title="Calculating Confidence Limits on the Frequency of Occurrence for a Binomial Distribution">
Calculating Confidence Limits on the Frequency of Occurrence for a Binomial
Distribution</a>
</h6></div></div></div>
<p>
Imagine you have a process that follows a binomial distribution: for
each trial conducted, an event either occurs or does it does not, referred
to as "successes" and "failures". If, by experiment,
you want to measure the frequency with which successes occur, the best
estimate is given simply by <span class="emphasis"><em>k</em></span> / <span class="emphasis"><em>N</em></span>,
for <span class="emphasis"><em>k</em></span> successes out of <span class="emphasis"><em>N</em></span>
trials. However our confidence in that estimate will be shaped by how
many trials were conducted, and how many successes were observed. The
static member functions <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_lower_bound_on_p</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_upper_bound_on_p</span></code>
allow you to calculate the confidence intervals for your estimate of
the occurrence frequency.
</p>
<p>
The sample program <a href="../../../../../../../../example/binomial_confidence_limits.cpp" target="_top">binomial_confidence_limits.cpp</a>
illustrates their use. It begins by defining a procedure that will
print a table of confidence limits for various degrees of certainty:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special"><</span><span class="identifier">iostream</span><span class="special">></span>
<span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special"><</span><span class="identifier">iomanip</span><span class="special">></span>
<span class="preprocessor">#include</span> <span class="special"><</span><span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">math</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">distributions</span><span class="special">/</span><span class="identifier">binomial</span><span class="special">.</span><span class="identifier">hpp</span><span class="special">></span>
<span class="keyword">void</span> <span class="identifier">confidence_limits_on_frequency</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">trials</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="comment">//
</span> <span class="comment">// trials = Total number of trials.
</span> <span class="comment">// successes = Total number of observed successes.
</span> <span class="comment">//
</span> <span class="comment">// Calculate confidence limits for an observed
</span> <span class="comment">// frequency of occurrence that follows a binomial
</span> <span class="comment">// distribution.
</span> <span class="comment">//
</span> <span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="keyword">using</span> <span class="keyword">namespace</span> <span class="identifier">boost</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">math</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="comment">// Print out general info:
</span> <span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span>
<span class="string">"___________________________________________\n"</span>
<span class="string">"2-Sided Confidence Limits For Success Ratio\n"</span>
<span class="string">"___________________________________________\n\n"</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">7</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">40</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">left</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"Number of Observations"</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"= "</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">trials</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"\n"</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">40</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">left</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"Number of successes"</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"= "</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"\n"</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">40</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">left</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"Sample frequency of occurrence"</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"= "</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="keyword">double</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special">/</span> <span class="identifier">trials</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"\n"</span><span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
The procedure now defines a table of significance levels: these are
the probabilities that the true occurrence frequency lies outside the
calculated interval:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="keyword">double</span> <span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[]</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="special">{</span> <span class="number">0.5</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.25</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.1</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.05</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.01</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.001</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.0001</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="number">0.00001</span> <span class="special">};</span>
</pre>
<p>
Some pretty printing of the table header follows:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"><span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="string">"\n\n"</span>
<span class="string">"_______________________________________________________________________\n"</span>
<span class="string">"Confidence Lower CP Upper CP Lower JP Upper JP\n"</span>
<span class="string">" Value (%) Limit Limit Limit Limit\n"</span>
<span class="string">"_______________________________________________________________________\n"</span><span class="special">;</span>
</pre>
<p>
And now for the important part - the intervals themselves - for each
value of <span class="emphasis"><em>alpha</em></span>, we call <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">find_lower_bound_on_p</span></code>
and <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">find_lower_upper_on_p</span></code>
to obtain lower and upper bounds respectively. Note that since we are
calculating a two-sided interval, we must divide the value of alpha
in two.
</p>
<p>
Please note that calculating two separate <span class="emphasis"><em>single sided bounds</em></span>,
each with risk level αis not the same thing as calculating a two sided
interval. Had we calculate two single-sided intervals each with a risk
that the true value is outside the interval of α, then:
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="disc"><li>
The risk that it is less than the lower bound is α.
</li></ul></div>
<p>
and
</p>
<div class="itemizedlist"><ul type="disc"><li>
The risk that it is greater than the upper bound is also α.
</li></ul></div>
<p>
So the risk it is outside <span class="bold"><strong>upper or lower bound</strong></span>,
is <span class="bold"><strong>twice</strong></span> alpha, and the probability
that it is inside the bounds is therefore not nearly as high as one
might have thought. This is why α/2 must be used in the calculations
below.
</p>
<p>
In contrast, had we been calculating a single-sided interval, for example:
<span class="emphasis"><em>"Calculate a lower bound so that we are P% sure that
the true occurrence frequency is greater than some value"</em></span>
then we would <span class="bold"><strong>not</strong></span> have divided by
two.
</p>
<p>
Finally note that <code class="computeroutput"><span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span></code>
provides a choice of two methods for the calculation, we print out
the results from both methods in this example:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting"> <span class="keyword">for</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="keyword">unsigned</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="number">0</span><span class="special">;</span> <span class="identifier">i</span> <span class="special"><</span> <span class="keyword">sizeof</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">)/</span><span class="keyword">sizeof</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="number">0</span><span class="special">]);</span> <span class="special">++</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">)</span>
<span class="special">{</span>
<span class="comment">// Confidence value:
</span> <span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">fixed</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">3</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">10</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">right</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="number">100</span> <span class="special">*</span> <span class="special">(</span><span class="number">1</span><span class="special">-</span><span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]);</span>
<span class="comment">// Calculate Clopper Pearson bounds:
</span> <span class="keyword">double</span> <span class="identifier">l</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_lower_bound_on_p</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">trials</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]/</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="keyword">double</span> <span class="identifier">u</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_upper_bound_on_p</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">trials</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]/</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="comment">// Print Clopper Pearson Limits:
</span> <span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">fixed</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">5</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">15</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">right</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">l</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">fixed</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">5</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">15</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">right</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">u</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="comment">// Calculate Jeffreys Prior Bounds:
</span> <span class="identifier">l</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_lower_bound_on_p</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">trials</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]/</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">jeffreys_prior_interval</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="identifier">u</span> <span class="special">=</span> <span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">find_upper_bound_on_p</span><span class="special">(</span>
<span class="identifier">trials</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">successes</span><span class="special">,</span> <span class="identifier">alpha</span><span class="special">[</span><span class="identifier">i</span><span class="special">]/</span><span class="number">2</span><span class="special">,</span>
<span class="identifier">binomial_distribution</span><span class="special"><>::</span><span class="identifier">jeffreys_prior_interval</span><span class="special">);</span>
<span class="comment">// Print Jeffreys Prior Limits:
</span> <span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">fixed</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">5</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">15</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">right</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">l</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">fixed</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setprecision</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">5</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">setw</span><span class="special">(</span><span class="number">15</span><span class="special">)</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">right</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">u</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">std</span><span class="special">::</span><span class="identifier">endl</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
<span class="identifier">cout</span> <span class="special"><<</span> <span class="identifier">endl</span><span class="special">;</span>
<span class="special">}</span>
</pre>
<p>
And that's all there is to it. Let's see some sample output for a 2
in 10 success ratio, first for 20 trials:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">___________________________________________
2-Sided Confidence Limits For Success Ratio
___________________________________________
Number of Observations = 20
Number of successes = 4
Sample frequency of occurrence = 0.2
_______________________________________________________________________
Confidence Lower CP Upper CP Lower JP Upper JP
Value (%) Limit Limit Limit Limit
_______________________________________________________________________
50.000 0.12840 0.29588 0.14974 0.26916
75.000 0.09775 0.34633 0.11653 0.31861
90.000 0.07135 0.40103 0.08734 0.37274
95.000 0.05733 0.43661 0.07152 0.40823
99.000 0.03576 0.50661 0.04655 0.47859
99.900 0.01905 0.58632 0.02634 0.55960
99.990 0.01042 0.64997 0.01530 0.62495
99.999 0.00577 0.70216 0.00901 0.67897
</pre>
<p>
As you can see, even at the 95% confidence level the bounds are really
quite wide (this example is chosen to be easily compared to the one
in the <a href="http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/" target="_top">NIST/SEMATECH
e-Handbook of Statistical Methods.</a> <a href="http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/prc/section2/prc241.htm" target="_top">here</a>).
Note also that the Clopper-Pearson calculation method (CP above) produces
quite noticeably more pessimistic estimates than the Jeffreys Prior
method (JP above).
</p>
<p>
Compare that with the program output for 2000 trials:
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">___________________________________________
2-Sided Confidence Limits For Success Ratio
___________________________________________
Number of Observations = 2000
Number of successes = 400
Sample frequency of occurrence = 0.2000000
_______________________________________________________________________
Confidence Lower CP Upper CP Lower JP Upper JP
Value (%) Limit Limit Limit Limit
_______________________________________________________________________
50.000 0.19382 0.20638 0.19406 0.20613
75.000 0.18965 0.21072 0.18990 0.21047
90.000 0.18537 0.21528 0.18561 0.21503
95.000 0.18267 0.21821 0.18291 0.21796
99.000 0.17745 0.22400 0.17769 0.22374
99.900 0.17150 0.23079 0.17173 0.23053
99.990 0.16658 0.23657 0.16681 0.23631
99.999 0.16233 0.24169 0.16256 0.24143
</pre>
<p>
Now even when the confidence level is very high, the limits are really
quite close to the experimentally calculated value of 0.2. Furthermore
the difference between the two calculation methods is now really quite
small.
</p>
</div>
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<td align="right"><div class="copyright-footer">Copyright © 2006 , 2007, 2008, 2009 John Maddock, Paul A. Bristow,
Hubert Holin, Xiaogang Zhang, Bruno Lalande, Johan Råde, Gautam Sewani
and Thijs van den Berg<p>
Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt" target="_top">http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt</a>)
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