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<img alt="Erlang logo" src="../../../../doc/erlang-logo.png"><br><small><a href="index.html">Reference Manual</a><br><a href="release_notes.html">Release Notes</a><br><a href="../pdf/kernel-2.15.3.pdf">PDF</a><br><a href="../../../../doc/index.html">Top</a></small><p><strong>Kernel</strong><br><strong>Reference Manual</strong><br><small>Version 2.15.3</small></p>
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<li title="kernel (App)"><a href="kernel_app.html">kernel (App)
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<li id="no" title="application " expanded="false">application<ul>
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<li title="get_all_env-0"><a href="application.html#get_all_env-0">get_all_env/0</a></li>
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<li title="get_all_key-0"><a href="application.html#get_all_key-0">get_all_key/0</a></li>
<li title="get_all_key-1"><a href="application.html#get_all_key-1">get_all_key/1</a></li>
<li title="get_application-0"><a href="application.html#get_application-0">get_application/0</a></li>
<li title="get_application-1"><a href="application.html#get_application-1">get_application/1</a></li>
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<li title="objfile_extension-0"><a href="code.html#objfile_extension-0">objfile_extension/0</a></li>
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<li title="is_module_native-1"><a href="code.html#is_module_native-1">is_module_native/1</a></li>
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<li title="block-1"><a href="disk_log.html#block-1">block/1</a></li>
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<li title="close-1"><a href="disk_log.html#close-1">close/1</a></li>
<li title="format_error-1"><a href="disk_log.html#format_error-1">format_error/1</a></li>
<li title="inc_wrap_file-1"><a href="disk_log.html#inc_wrap_file-1">inc_wrap_file/1</a></li>
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<li title="lclose-2"><a href="disk_log.html#lclose-2">lclose/2</a></li>
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<li title="blog_terms-2"><a href="disk_log.html#blog_terms-2">blog_terms/2</a></li>
<li title="open-1"><a href="disk_log.html#open-1">open/1</a></li>
<li title="pid2name-1"><a href="disk_log.html#pid2name-1">pid2name/1</a></li>
<li title="reopen-2"><a href="disk_log.html#reopen-2">reopen/2</a></li>
<li title="reopen-3"><a href="disk_log.html#reopen-3">reopen/3</a></li>
<li title="breopen-3"><a href="disk_log.html#breopen-3">breopen/3</a></li>
<li title="sync-1"><a href="disk_log.html#sync-1">sync/1</a></li>
<li title="truncate-1"><a href="disk_log.html#truncate-1">truncate/1</a></li>
<li title="truncate-2"><a href="disk_log.html#truncate-2">truncate/2</a></li>
<li title="btruncate-2"><a href="disk_log.html#btruncate-2">btruncate/2</a></li>
<li title="unblock-1"><a href="disk_log.html#unblock-1">unblock/1</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="no" title="erl_boot_server " expanded="false">erl_boot_server<ul>
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Top of manual page
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<li title="start-1"><a href="erl_boot_server.html#start-1">start/1</a></li>
<li title="start_link-1"><a href="erl_boot_server.html#start_link-1">start_link/1</a></li>
<li title="add_slave-1"><a href="erl_boot_server.html#add_slave-1">add_slave/1</a></li>
<li title="delete_slave-1"><a href="erl_boot_server.html#delete_slave-1">delete_slave/1</a></li>
<li title="which_slaves-0"><a href="erl_boot_server.html#which_slaves-0">which_slaves/0</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li id="no" title="erl_ddll " expanded="false">erl_ddll<ul>
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<li title="demonitor-1"><a href="erl_ddll.html#demonitor-1">demonitor/1</a></li>
<li title="info-0"><a href="erl_ddll.html#info-0">info/0</a></li>
<li title="info-1"><a href="erl_ddll.html#info-1">info/1</a></li>
<li title="info-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#info-2">info/2</a></li>
<li title="load-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#load-2">load/2</a></li>
<li title="load_driver-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#load_driver-2">load_driver/2</a></li>
<li title="monitor-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#monitor-2">monitor/2</a></li>
<li title="reload-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#reload-2">reload/2</a></li>
<li title="reload_driver-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#reload_driver-2">reload_driver/2</a></li>
<li title="try_load-3"><a href="erl_ddll.html#try_load-3">try_load/3</a></li>
<li title="try_unload-2"><a href="erl_ddll.html#try_unload-2">try_unload/2</a></li>
<li title="unload-1"><a href="erl_ddll.html#unload-1">unload/1</a></li>
<li title="unload_driver-1"><a href="erl_ddll.html#unload_driver-1">unload_driver/1</a></li>
<li title="loaded_drivers-0"><a href="erl_ddll.html#loaded_drivers-0">loaded_drivers/0</a></li>
<li title="format_error-1"><a href="erl_ddll.html#format_error-1">format_error/1</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li title="erl_prim_loader"><a href="erl_prim_loader.html">erl_prim_loader</a></li>
<li title="erlang"><a href="erlang.html">erlang</a></li>
<li id="no" title="error_handler " expanded="false">error_handler<ul>
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<li title="undefined_function-3"><a href="error_handler.html#undefined_function-3">undefined_function/3</a></li>
<li title="undefined_lambda-3"><a href="error_handler.html#undefined_lambda-3">undefined_lambda/3</a></li>
</ul>
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<li id="no" title="error_logger " expanded="false">error_logger<ul>
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<li title="error_msg-1"><a href="error_logger.html#error_msg-1">error_msg/1</a></li>
<li title="error_msg-2"><a href="error_logger.html#error_msg-2">error_msg/2</a></li>
<li title="format-2"><a href="error_logger.html#format-2">format/2</a></li>
<li title="error_report-1"><a href="error_logger.html#error_report-1">error_report/1</a></li>
<li title="error_report-2"><a href="error_logger.html#error_report-2">error_report/2</a></li>
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<li title="tty-1"><a href="error_logger.html#tty-1">tty/1</a></li>
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<li id="no" title="gen_tcp " expanded="false">gen_tcp<ul>
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<li title="connect-3"><a href="gen_tcp.html#connect-3">connect/3</a></li>
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<li title="listen-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#listen-2">listen/2</a></li>
<li title="accept-1"><a href="gen_tcp.html#accept-1">accept/1</a></li>
<li title="accept-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#accept-2">accept/2</a></li>
<li title="send-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#send-2">send/2</a></li>
<li title="recv-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#recv-2">recv/2</a></li>
<li title="recv-3"><a href="gen_tcp.html#recv-3">recv/3</a></li>
<li title="controlling_process-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#controlling_process-2">controlling_process/2</a></li>
<li title="close-1"><a href="gen_tcp.html#close-1">close/1</a></li>
<li title="shutdown-2"><a href="gen_tcp.html#shutdown-2">shutdown/2</a></li>
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<li title="open-1"><a href="gen_udp.html#open-1">open/1</a></li>
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<li title="send-4"><a href="gen_udp.html#send-4">send/4</a></li>
<li title="recv-2"><a href="gen_udp.html#recv-2">recv/2</a></li>
<li title="recv-3"><a href="gen_udp.html#recv-3">recv/3</a></li>
<li title="controlling_process-2"><a href="gen_udp.html#controlling_process-2">controlling_process/2</a></li>
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<li id="no" title="gen_sctp " expanded="false">gen_sctp<ul>
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<li title="abort-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#abort-2">abort/2</a></li>
<li title="close-1"><a href="gen_sctp.html#close-1">close/1</a></li>
<li title="connect-4"><a href="gen_sctp.html#connect-4">connect/4</a></li>
<li title="connect-5"><a href="gen_sctp.html#connect-5">connect/5</a></li>
<li title="connect_init-4"><a href="gen_sctp.html#connect_init-4">connect_init/4</a></li>
<li title="connect_init-5"><a href="gen_sctp.html#connect_init-5">connect_init/5</a></li>
<li title="controlling_process-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#controlling_process-2">controlling_process/2</a></li>
<li title="eof-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#eof-2">eof/2</a></li>
<li title="listen-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#listen-2">listen/2</a></li>
<li title="open-0"><a href="gen_sctp.html#open-0">open/0</a></li>
<li title="open-1"><a href="gen_sctp.html#open-1">open/1</a></li>
<li title="open-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#open-2">open/2</a></li>
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<li title="recv-1"><a href="gen_sctp.html#recv-1">recv/1</a></li>
<li title="recv-2"><a href="gen_sctp.html#recv-2">recv/2</a></li>
<li title="send-3"><a href="gen_sctp.html#send-3">send/3</a></li>
<li title="send-4"><a href="gen_sctp.html#send-4">send/4</a></li>
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<li title="send-2"><a href="global.html#send-2">send/2</a></li>
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<li title="sync-0"><a href="global.html#sync-0">sync/0</a></li>
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<li title="format_error-1"><a href="inet.html#format_error-1">format_error/1</a></li>
<li title="getaddr-2"><a href="inet.html#getaddr-2">getaddr/2</a></li>
<li title="getaddrs-2"><a href="inet.html#getaddrs-2">getaddrs/2</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyaddr-1"><a href="inet.html#gethostbyaddr-1">gethostbyaddr/1</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyname-1"><a href="inet.html#gethostbyname-1">gethostbyname/1</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyname-2"><a href="inet.html#gethostbyname-2">gethostbyname/2</a></li>
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<li title="getifaddrs-0"><a href="inet.html#getifaddrs-0">getifaddrs/0</a></li>
<li title="getopts-2"><a href="inet.html#getopts-2">getopts/2</a></li>
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<li title="getstat-2"><a href="inet.html#getstat-2">getstat/2</a></li>
<li title="peername-1"><a href="inet.html#peername-1">peername/1</a></li>
<li title="port-1"><a href="inet.html#port-1">port/1</a></li>
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<li title="setopts-2"><a href="inet.html#setopts-2">setopts/2</a></li>
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<li title="getbyname-2"><a href="inet_res.html#getbyname-2">getbyname/2</a></li>
<li title="getbyname-3"><a href="inet_res.html#getbyname-3">getbyname/3</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyaddr-1"><a href="inet_res.html#gethostbyaddr-1">gethostbyaddr/1</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyaddr-2"><a href="inet_res.html#gethostbyaddr-2">gethostbyaddr/2</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyname-1"><a href="inet_res.html#gethostbyname-1">gethostbyname/1</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyname-2"><a href="inet_res.html#gethostbyname-2">gethostbyname/2</a></li>
<li title="gethostbyname-3"><a href="inet_res.html#gethostbyname-3">gethostbyname/3</a></li>
<li title="lookup-3"><a href="inet_res.html#lookup-3">lookup/3</a></li>
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<li title="get_net_ticktime-0"><a href="net_kernel.html#get_net_ticktime-0">get_net_ticktime/0</a></li>
<li title="set_net_ticktime-1"><a href="net_kernel.html#set_net_ticktime-1">set_net_ticktime/1</a></li>
<li title="set_net_ticktime-2"><a href="net_kernel.html#set_net_ticktime-2">set_net_ticktime/2</a></li>
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<li title="get_closest_pid-1"><a href="pg2.html#get_closest_pid-1">get_closest_pid/1</a></li>
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<li title="call-4"><a href="rpc.html#call-4">call/4</a></li>
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<li title="yield-1"><a href="rpc.html#yield-1">yield/1</a></li>
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<li title="cast-4"><a href="rpc.html#cast-4">cast/4</a></li>
<li title="eval_everywhere-3"><a href="rpc.html#eval_everywhere-3">eval_everywhere/3</a></li>
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<li title="abcast-2"><a href="rpc.html#abcast-2">abcast/2</a></li>
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<li title="safe_multi_server_call-2"><a href="rpc.html#safe_multi_server_call-2">safe_multi_server_call/2</a></li>
<li title="safe_multi_server_call-3"><a href="rpc.html#safe_multi_server_call-3">safe_multi_server_call/3</a></li>
<li title="parallel_eval-1"><a href="rpc.html#parallel_eval-1">parallel_eval/1</a></li>
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<li title="get_token-0"><a href="seq_trace.html#get_token-0">get_token/0</a></li>
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<!-- refpage --><center><h1>packages</h1></center>
<h3>MODULE</h3>
<div class="REFBODY">packages</div>
<h3>MODULE SUMMARY</h3>
<div class="REFBODY">Packages in Erlang</div>
<h3>DESCRIPTION</h3>
<div class="REFBODY"><p>
<div class="warning">
<div class="label">Warning</div>
<div class="content"><p><p>
Packages has since it was introduced more than 5 years ago been an
experimental feature. Use it at your own risk, we do not
actively maintain and develop this feature. It might however be
supported some
day.
</p>
<p>
In spite of this packages work quite well, but there are some
known issues in tools and other parts where packages don't work well.
</p>
</p></div>
</div>
<p><strong>Introduction</strong></p>
<p>Packages are simply namespaces for modules.
All old Erlang modules automatically belong to the top level
("empty-string") namespace, and do not need any changes.</p>
<p>The full name of a packaged module is written as e.g.
"<span class="code">fee.fie.foe.foo</span>",
i.e., as atoms separated by periods,
where the package name is the part up to
but not including the last period;
in this case "<span class="code">fee.fie.foe</span>".
A more concrete example is the module <span class="code">erl.lang.term</span>,
which is in the
package <span class="code">erl.lang</span>.
Package names can have any number of segments, as in
<span class="code">erl.lang.list.sort</span>.
The atoms in the name can be quoted, as in <span class="code">foo.'Bar'.baz</span>,
or even the
whole name, as in <span class="code">'foo.bar.baz'</span> but the concatenation of
atoms and
periods must not contain two consecutive period characters or
end with a period,
as in <span class="code">'foo..bar'</span>, <span class="code">foo.'.bar'</span>, or <span class="code">foo.'bar.'</span>.
The periods must not be followed by whitespace.</p>
<p>The code loader maps module names onto the file system directory
structure.
E.g., the module <span class="code">erl.lang.term</span> corresponds to a file
<span class="code">.../erl/lang/term.beam</span>
in the search path.
Note that the name of the actual object file corresponds to
the last part only of the full module name.
(Thus, old existing modules such as <span class="code">lists</span>
simply map to <span class="code">.../lists.beam</span>, exactly as before.)</p>
<p>A packaged module in a file "<span class="code">foo/bar/fred.erl</span>" is declared
as:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-module(foo.bar.fred).</pre></div>
<p>This can be compiled and loaded from the Erlang shell using
<span class="code">c(fred)</span>, if
your current directory is the same as that of the file.
The object file will be named <span class="code">fred.beam</span>.</p>
<p>The Erlang search path works exactly as before,
except that the package segments will be appended to each
directory in the path in order to find the
file. E.g., assume the path is <span class="code">["/usr/lib/erl", "/usr/local/lib/otp/legacy/ebin", "/home/barney/erl"]</span>.
Then, the code for a module named <span class="code">foo.bar.fred</span> will be
searched for
first as <span class="code">"/usr/lib/erl/foo/bar/fred.beam"</span>, then
<span class="code">"/usr/local/lib/otp/legacy/ebin/foo/bar/fred.beam"</span>
and lastly <span class="code">"/home/barney/erl/foo/bar/fred.beam"</span>.
A module
like <span class="code">lists</span>, which is in the top-level package,
will be looked for as <span class="code">"/usr/lib/erl/lists.beam"</span>,
<span class="code">"/usr/local/lib/otp/legacy/ebin/lists.beam"</span> and
<span class="code">"/home/barney/erl/lists.beam"</span>.</p>
<p><strong>Programming</strong></p>
<p>Normally, if a call is made from one module to another,
it is assumed that the
called module belongs to the same package as the source module.
The compiler
automatically expands such calls. E.g., in:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-module(foo.bar.m1).
-export([f/1]).
f(X) -> m2:g(X).</pre></div>
<p><span class="code">m2:g(X)</span> becomes a call to <span class="code">foo.bar.m2</span>
If this is not what was intended, the call can be written
explicitly, as in</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-module(foo.bar.m1).
-export([f/1]).
f(X) -> fee.fie.foe.m2:g(X).</pre></div>
<p>Because the called module is given with an explicit package name,
no expansion is done in this case.</p>
<p>If a module from another package is used repeatedly in a module,
an import declaration can make life easier:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-module(foo.bar.m1).
-export([f/1, g/1]).
-import(fee.fie.foe.m2).
f(X) -> m2:g(X).
g(X) -> m2:h(X).</pre></div>
<p>will make the calls to <span class="code">m2</span> refer to <span class="code">fee.fie.foe.m2</span>.
More generally, a declaration <span class="code">-import(Package.Module).</span>
will cause calls to <span class="code">Module</span>
to be expanded to <span class="code">Package.Module</span>.</p>
<p>Old-style function imports work as normal (but full module
names must be
used); e.g.:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-import(fee.fie.foe.m2, [g/1, h/1]).</pre></div>
<p>however, it is probably better to avoid this form of import
altogether in new
code, since it makes it hard to see what calls are really "remote".</p>
<p>If it is necessary to call a module in the top-level package
from within a
named package, the module name can be written either with an
initial period as
in e.g. "<span class="code">.lists</span>", or with an empty initial atom, as in
"<span class="code">''.lists</span>".
However, the best way is to use an import declaration -
this is most obvious to
the eye, and makes sure we don't forget adding a period somewhere:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
-module(foo.bar.fred).
-export([f/1]).
-import(lists).
f(X) -> lists:reverse(X).</pre></div>
<p>The dot-syntax for module names can be used in any expression.
All segments must
be constant atoms, and the result must be a well-formed
package/module name.
E.g.:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
spawn(foo.bar.fred, f, [X])</pre></div>
<p>is equivalent to <span class="code">spawn('foo.bar.fred', f, [X])</span>.</p>
<p><strong>The Erlang Shell</strong></p>
<p>The shell also automatically expands remote calls,
however currently no
expansions are made by default.
The user can change the behaviour by using the <span class="code">import/1</span>
shell command (or its abbreviation <span class="code">use/1</span>). E.g.:</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
1> <span class="bold_code">import(foo.bar.m).</span>
ok
2> <span class="bold_code">m:f().</span></pre></div>
<p>will evaluate <span class="code">foo.bar.m:f()</span>.
If a new import is made of the same name,
this overrides any previous import.
(It is likely that in the future, some
system packages will be pre-imported.)</p>
<p>In addition, the shell command <span class="code">import_all/1</span>
(and its alias <span class="code">use_all/1</span>)
imports all modules currently found in the path for a given
package name. E.g.,
assuming the files "<span class="code">.../foo/bar/fred.beam</span>",
"<span class="code">.../foo/bar/barney.beam</span>"
and "<span class="code">.../foo/bar/bambam.beam</span>" can be found from our current
path,</p>
<div class="example"><pre>
1> <span class="bold_code">import_all(foo.bar).</span></pre></div>
<p>will make <span class="code">fred</span>, <span class="code">barney</span> and <span class="code">bambam</span>
expand to <span class="code">foo.bar.fred</span>,
<span class="code">foo.bar.barney</span> and <span class="code">foo.bar.bambam</span>, respectively.</p>
<p>Note: The compiler does not have an "import all" directive, for the
reason that Erlang has no compile time type checking.
E.g. if the wrong search
path is used at compile time, a call <span class="code">m:f(...)</span>
could be expanded to <span class="code">foo.bar.m:f(...)</span>
without any warning, instead of the intended
<span class="code">frob.ozz.m:f(...)</span>, if
package <span class="code">foo.bar</span> happens to be found first in the path.
Explicitly
declaring each use of a module makes for safe code.</p>
</p></div>
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