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<ol class="chapter"><li class="affix"><a href="introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li><a href="notation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Notation</a></li><li><a href="lexical-structure.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Lexical structure</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="input-format.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.1.</strong> Input format</a></li><li><a href="keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.2.</strong> Keywords</a></li><li><a href="identifiers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.3.</strong> Identifiers</a></li><li><a href="comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li><a href="whitespace.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.5.</strong> Whitespace</a></li><li><a href="tokens.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.6.</strong> Tokens</a></li><li><a href="paths.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.7.</strong> Paths</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Macros</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="macros-by-example.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Macros By Example</a></li><li><a href="procedural-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Procedural Macros</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="crates-and-source-files.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Crates and source files</a></li><li><a href="items-and-attributes.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Items and attributes</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="items.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Items</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="items/modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.1.</strong> Modules</a></li><li><a href="items/extern-crates.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.2.</strong> Extern crates</a></li><li><a href="items/use-declarations.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.3.</strong> Use declarations</a></li><li><a href="items/functions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.4.</strong> Functions</a></li><li><a href="items/type-aliases.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.5.</strong> Type aliases</a></li><li><a href="items/structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.6.</strong> Structs</a></li><li><a href="items/enumerations.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.7.</strong> Enumerations</a></li><li><a href="items/unions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.8.</strong> Unions</a></li><li><a href="items/constant-items.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.9.</strong> Constant items</a></li><li><a href="items/static-items.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.10.</strong> Static items</a></li><li><a href="items/traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.11.</strong> Traits</a></li><li><a href="items/implementations.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.12.</strong> Implementations</a></li><li><a href="items/external-blocks.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.13.</strong> External blocks</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="items/generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> Type and lifetime parameters</a></li><li><a href="items/associated-items.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Associated Items</a></li><li><a href="visibility-and-privacy.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.4.</strong> Visibility and Privacy</a></li><li><a href="attributes.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.5.</strong> Attributes</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="statements-and-expressions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Statements and expressions</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="statements.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Statements</a></li><li><a href="expressions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> Expressions</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="expressions/literal-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.1.</strong> Literal expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/path-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.2.</strong> Path expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/block-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.3.</strong> Block expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/operator-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.4.</strong> Operator expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/grouped-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.5.</strong> Grouped expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/array-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.6.</strong> Array and index expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/tuple-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.7.</strong> Tuple and index expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/struct-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.8.</strong> Struct expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/enum-variant-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.9.</strong> Enum variant expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/call-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.10.</strong> Call expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/method-call-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.11.</strong> Method call expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/field-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.12.</strong> Field access expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/closure-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.13.</strong> Closure expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/loop-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.14.</strong> Loop expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/range-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.15.</strong> Range expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/if-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.16.</strong> If and if let expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/match-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.17.</strong> Match expressions</a></li><li><a href="expressions/return-expr.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.18.</strong> Return expressions</a></li></ol></li></ol></li><li><a href="type-system.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Type system</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> Types</a></li><li><a href="dynamically-sized-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Dynamically Sized Types</a></li><li><a href="type-layout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Type layout</a></li><li><a href="interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.4.</strong> Interior mutability</a></li><li><a href="subtyping.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.5.</strong> Subtyping and Variance</a></li><li><a href="trait-bounds.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.6.</strong> Trait and lifetime bounds</a></li><li><a href="type-coercions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.7.</strong> Type coercions</a></li><li><a href="destructors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.8.</strong> Destructors</a></li><li><a href="lifetime-elision.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.9.</strong> Lifetime elision</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="special-types-and-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Special types and traits</a></li><li><a href="memory-model.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Memory model</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="memory-allocation-and-lifetime.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Memory allocation and lifetime</a></li><li><a href="memory-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Memory ownership</a></li><li><a href="variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> Variables</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="linkage.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Linkage</a></li><li><a href="unsafety.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Unsafety</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="unsafe-functions.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> Unsafe functions</a></li><li><a href="unsafe-blocks.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> Unsafe blocks</a></li><li><a href="behavior-considered-undefined.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> Behavior considered undefined</a></li><li><a href="behavior-not-considered-unsafe.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.4.</strong> Behavior not considered unsafe</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="influences.html">Appendix: Influences</a></li><li class="affix"><a href="undocumented.html">Appendix: As-yet-undocumented Features</a></li><li class="affix"><a href="glossary.html">Appendix: Glossary</a></li></ol>
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<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-items" id="associated-items"><h1>Associated Items</h1></a>
<p><em>Associated Items</em> are the items declared in <a href="items/traits.html">traits</a> or defined in
<a href="items/implementations.html">implementations</a>. They are called this because they are defined on an associate
type — the type in the implementation. They are a subset of the kinds of
items you can declare in a module. Specifically, there are <a href="items/associated-items.html#associated-functions-and-methods">associated
functions</a> (including methods), <a href="items/associated-items.html#associated-types">associated types</a>, and <a href="items/associated-items.html#associated-constants">associated constants</a>.</p>
<p>Associated items are useful when the associated item logically is related to the
associating item. For example, the <code>is_some</code> method on <code>Option</code> is intrinsically
related to Options, so should be associated.</p>
<p>Every associated item kind comes in two varieties: definitions that contain the
actual implementation and declarations that declare signatures for
definitions.</p>
<p>It is the declarations that make up the contract of traits and what it available
on generic types.</p>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-functions-and-methods" id="associated-functions-and-methods"><h2>Associated functions and methods</h2></a>
<p><em>Associated functions</em> are <a href="items/functions.html">functions</a> associated with a type.</p>
<p>An <em>associated function declaration</em> declares a signature for an associated
function definition. It is written as a function item, except the
function body is replaced with a <code>;</code>.</p>
<p>The identifier if the name of the function. The generics, parameter list,
return type, and where clause of the associated function must be the same as the
associated function declarations's.</p>
<p>An <em>associated function definition</em> defines a function associated with another
type. It is written the same as a [function item].</p>
<p>An example of a common associated function is a <code>new</code> function that returns
a value of the type the associated function is associated with.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">struct Struct {
field: i32
}
impl Struct {
fn new() -> Struct {
Struct {
field: 0i32
}
}
}
fn main () {
let _struct = Struct::new();
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>When the associated function is declared on a trait, the function can also be
called with a <a href="paths.html">path</a> that is a path to the trait appended by the name of the
trait. When this happens, it is substituted for <code><_ as Trait>::function_name</code>.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Num {
fn from_i32(n: i32) -> Self;
}
impl Num for f64 {
fn from_i32(n: i32) -> f64 { n as f64 }
}
// These 4 are all equivalent in this case.
let _: f64 = Num::from_i32(42);
let _: f64 = <_ as Num>::from_i32(42);
let _: f64 = <f64 as Num>::from_i32(42);
let _: f64 = f64::from_i32(42);
#}</code></pre></pre>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#methods" id="methods"><h3>Methods</h3></a>
<p>Associated functions whose first parameter is named <code>self</code> are called <em>methods</em>
and may be invoked using the <a href="expressions/method-call-expr.html">method call operator</a>, for example, <code>x.foo()</code>, as
well as the usual function call notation.</p>
<p>The <code>self</code> parameter must have one of the following types. As a result, the
following shorthands may be used to declare <code>self</code>:</p>
<ul>
<li><code>self</code> -> <code>self: Self</code></li>
<li><code>&'lifetime self</code> -> <code>self: &'lifetime Self</code></li>
<li><code>&'lifetime mut self</code> -> <code>self: &'lifetime mut Self</code></li>
<li><code>self : Box<Self></code> (no shorthand)</li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p>Note: Lifetimes can be and usually are elided with this shorthand.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Consider the following trait:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# type Surface = i32;
# type BoundingBox = i32;
trait Shape {
fn draw(&self, Surface);
fn bounding_box(&self) -> BoundingBox;
}
#}</code></pre></pre>
<p>This defines a trait with two methods. All values that have <a href="items/implementations.html">implementations</a>
of this trait while the trait is in scope can have their <code>draw</code> and
<code>bounding_box</code> methods called.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# type Surface = i32;
# type BoundingBox = i32;
# trait Shape {
# fn draw(&self, Surface);
# fn bounding_box(&self) -> BoundingBox;
# }
#
struct Circle {
// ...
}
impl Shape for Circle {
// ...
# fn draw(&self, _: Surface) {}
# fn bounding_box(&self) -> BoundingBox { 0i32 }
}
# impl Circle {
# fn new() -> Circle { Circle{} }
# }
#
let circle_shape = Circle::new();
let bounding_box = circle_shape.bounding_box();
#}</code></pre></pre>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-types" id="associated-types"><h2>Associated Types</h2></a>
<p><em>Associated types</em> are <a href="items/type-aliases.html">type aliases</a> associated with another type. Associated
types cannot be defined in <a href="items/implementations.html#inherent-implementations">inherent implementations</a> nor can they be given a
default implementation in traits.</p>
<p>An <em>associated type declaration</em> declares a signature for associated type
definitions. It is written as <code>type</code>, then an <a href="identifiers.html">identifier</a>, and
finally an optional list of trait bounds.</p>
<p>The identifier is the name of the declared type alias. The optional trait bounds
must be fulfilled by the implementations of the type alias.</p>
<p>An <em>associated type definition</em> defines a type alias on another type. It is
written as <code>type</code>, then an <a href="identifiers.html">identifier</a>, then an <code>=</code>, and finally a <a href="types.html">type</a>.</p>
<p>If a type <code>Item</code> has an associated type <code>Assoc</code> from a trait <code>Trait</code>, then
<code><Item as Trait>::Assoc</code> is a type that is an alias of the type specified in the
associated type definition. Furthermore, if <code>Item</code> is a type parameter, then
<code>Item::Assoc</code> can be used in type parameters.</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">trait AssociatedType {
// Associated type declaration
type Assoc;
}
struct Struct;
struct OtherStruct;
impl AssociatedType for Struct {
// Associated type definition
type Assoc = OtherStruct;
}
impl OtherStruct {
fn new() -> OtherStruct {
OtherStruct
}
}
fn main() {
// Usage of the associated type to refer to OtherStruct as <Struct as AssociatedType>::Assoc
let _other_struct: OtherStruct = <Struct as AssociatedType>::Assoc::new();
}
</code></pre></pre>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-types-container-example" id="associated-types-container-example"><h3>Associated Types Container Example</h3></a>
<p>Consider the following example of a <code>Container</code> trait. Notice that the type is
available for use in the method signatures:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
trait Container {
type E;
fn empty() -> Self;
fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
}
#}</code></pre></pre>
<p>In order for a type to implement this trait, it must not only provide
implementations for every method, but it must specify the type <code>E</code>. Here's an
implementation of <code>Container</code> for the standard library type <code>Vec</code>:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
# trait Container {
# type E;
# fn empty() -> Self;
# fn insert(&mut self, Self::E);
# }
impl<T> Container for Vec<T> {
type E = T;
fn empty() -> Vec<T> { Vec::new() }
fn insert(&mut self, x: T) { self.push(x); }
}
#}</code></pre></pre>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-constants" id="associated-constants"><h2>Associated Constants</h2></a>
<p><em>Associated constants</em> are <a href="items/constant-items.html">constants</a> associated with a type.</p>
<p>An <em>associated constant declaration</em> declares a signature for associated
constant definitions. It is written as <code>const</code>, then an identifier,
then <code>:</code>, then a type, finished by a <code>;</code>.</p>
<p>The identifier is the name of the constant used in the path. The type is the
type that the definition has to implement.</p>
<p>An <em>associated constant definition</em> defines a constant associated with a
type. It is written the same as a <a href="items/constant-items.html">constant item</a>.</p>
<a class="header" href="items/associated-items.html#associated-constants-examples" id="associated-constants-examples"><h3>Associated Constants Examples</h3></a>
<p>A basic example:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">trait ConstantId {
const ID: i32;
}
struct Struct;
impl ConstantId for Struct {
const ID: i32 = 1;
}
fn main() {
assert_eq!(1, Struct::ID);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>Using default values:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">trait ConstantIdDefault {
const ID: i32 = 1;
}
struct Struct;
struct OtherStruct;
impl ConstantIdDefault for Struct {}
impl ConstantIdDefault for OtherStruct {
const ID: i32 = 5;
}
fn main() {
assert_eq!(1, Struct::ID);
assert_eq!(5, OtherStruct::ID);
}
</code></pre></pre>
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distrib
>
Mageia
>
6
>
armv7hl
>
media
>
core-updates
>
by-pkgid
>
4e2dbb669434a7691662cb2f0ad38972
>
files
>
11113
