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<ol class="chapter"><li class="affix"><a href="foreword.html">Foreword</a></li><li class="affix"><a href="ch00-00-introduction.html">Introduction</a></li><li><a href="ch01-00-getting-started.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Getting Started</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Installation</a></li><li><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li><a href="ch01-03-hello-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> Hello, Cargo!</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Programming a Guessing Game</a></li><li><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Common Programming Concepts</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Variables and Mutability</a></li><li><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Data Types</a></li><li><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> How Functions Work</a></li><li><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Control Flow</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Understanding Ownership</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What is Ownership?</a></li><li><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> References & Borrowing</a></li><li><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> Slices</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Using Structs to Structure Related Data</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Defining and Instantiating Structs</a></li><li><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> An Example Program Using Structs</a></li><li><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Method Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Enums and Pattern Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Defining an Enum</a></li><li><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> The match Control Flow Operator</a></li><li><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Concise Control Flow with if let</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch07-00-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Modules</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch07-01-mod-and-the-filesystem.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> mod and the Filesystem</a></li><li><a href="ch07-02-controlling-visibility-with-pub.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Controlling Visibility with pub</a></li><li><a href="ch07-03-importing-names-with-use.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Referring to Names in Different Modules</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch08-00-common-collections.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Common Collections</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch08-01-vectors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> Vectors</a></li><li><a href="ch08-02-strings.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> Strings</a></li><li><a href="ch08-03-hash-maps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> Hash Maps</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch09-00-error-handling.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Error Handling</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Unrecoverable Errors with panic!</a></li><li><a href="ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Recoverable Errors with Result</a></li><li><a href="ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> To panic! or Not To panic!</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch10-00-generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch10-01-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> Generic Data Types</a></li><li><a href="ch10-02-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> Traits: Defining Shared Behavior</a></li><li><a href="ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> Validating References with Lifetimes</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch11-00-testing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Testing</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch11-01-writing-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> Writing tests</a></li><li><a href="ch11-02-running-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> Running tests</a></li><li><a href="ch11-03-test-organization.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> Test Organization</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch12-00-an-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> An I/O Project: Building a Command Line Program</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> Accepting Command Line Arguments</a></li><li><a href="ch12-02-reading-a-file.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> Reading a File</a></li><li><a href="ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling</a></li><li><a href="ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development</a></li><li><a href="ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> Working with Environment Variables</a></li><li><a href="ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.6.</strong> Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch13-00-functional-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch13-01-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.1.</strong> Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment</a></li><li><a href="ch13-02-iterators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.2.</strong> Processing a Series of Items with Iterators</a></li><li><a href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.3.</strong> Improving Our I/O Project</a></li><li><a href="ch13-04-performance.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.4.</strong> Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch14-00-more-about-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> More about Cargo and Crates.io</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch14-01-release-profiles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.1.</strong> Customizing Builds with Release Profiles</a></li><li><a href="ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.2.</strong> Publishing a Crate to Crates.io</a></li><li><a href="ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.3.</strong> Cargo Workspaces</a></li><li><a href="ch14-04-installing-binaries.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.4.</strong> Installing Binaries from Crates.io with cargo install</a></li><li><a href="ch14-05-extending-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.5.</strong> Extending Cargo with Custom Commands</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch15-00-smart-pointers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> Smart Pointers</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch15-01-box.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.1.</strong> Box<T> Points to Data on the Heap and Has a Known Size</a></li><li><a href="ch15-02-deref.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.2.</strong> The Deref Trait Allows Access to the Data Through a Reference</a></li><li><a href="ch15-03-drop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.3.</strong> The Drop Trait Runs Code on Cleanup</a></li><li><a href="ch15-04-rc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.4.</strong> Rc<T>, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer</a></li><li><a href="ch15-05-interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.5.</strong> RefCell<T> and the Interior Mutability Pattern</a></li><li><a href="ch15-06-reference-cycles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.6.</strong> Creating Reference Cycles and Leaking Memory is Safe</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch16-00-concurrency.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> Fearless Concurrency</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch16-01-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.1.</strong> Threads</a></li><li><a href="ch16-02-message-passing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.2.</strong> Message Passing</a></li><li><a href="ch16-03-shared-state.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.3.</strong> Shared State</a></li><li><a href="ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.4.</strong> Extensible Concurrency: Sync and Send</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch17-00-oop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> Object Oriented Programming Features of Rust</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch17-01-what-is-oo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.1.</strong> Characteristics of Object-Oriented Languages</a></li><li><a href="ch17-02-trait-objects.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.2.</strong> Using Trait Objects that Allow for Values of Different Types</a></li><li><a href="ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.3.</strong> Implementing an Object-Oriented Design Pattern</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch18-00-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Patterns Match the Structure of Values</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.1.</strong> All the Places Patterns May be Used</a></li><li><a href="ch18-02-refutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.2.</strong> Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match</a></li><li><a href="ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.3.</strong> All the Pattern Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch19-00-advanced-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> Advanced Features</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.1.</strong> Unsafe Rust</a></li><li><a href="ch19-02-advanced-lifetimes.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.2.</strong> Advanced Lifetimes</a></li><li><a href="ch19-03-advanced-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.3.</strong> Advanced Traits</a></li><li><a href="ch19-04-advanced-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.4.</strong> Advanced Types</a></li><li><a href="ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.5.</strong> Advanced Functions & Closures</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch20-01-single-threaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.1.</strong> A Single Threaded Web Server</a></li><li><a href="ch20-02-multithreaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.2.</strong> Turning our Single Threaded Server into a Multithreaded Server</a></li><li><a href="ch20-03-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.3.</strong> Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="appendix-00.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> Appendix</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="appendix-01-keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.1.</strong> A - Keywords</a></li><li><a href="appendix-02-operators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.2.</strong> B - Operators and Symbols</a></li><li><a href="appendix-03-derivable-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.3.</strong> C - Derivable Traits</a></li><li><a href="appendix-04-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.4.</strong> D - Macros</a></li><li><a href="appendix-05-translation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.5.</strong> E - Translations</a></li><li><a href="appendix-06-newest-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.6.</strong> F - Newest Features</a></li><li><a href="appendix-07-nightly-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.7.</strong> G - How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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<a class="header" href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html#improving-our-io-project" id="improving-our-io-project"><h2>Improving Our I/O Project</h2></a>
<p>With this new knowledge about iterators, we can improve the I/O project in
Chapter 12 by using iterators to make places in the code clearer and more
concise. Let’s look at how iterators can improve our implementation of the
<code>Config::new</code> function and the <code>search</code> function.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html#removing-a-clone-using-an-iterator" id="removing-a-clone-using-an-iterator"><h3>Removing a <code>clone</code> Using an Iterator</h3></a>
<p>In Listing 12-6, we added code that took a slice of <code>String</code> values and created
an instance of the <code>Config</code> struct by indexing into the slice and cloning the
values, allowing the <code>Config</code> struct to own those values. In Listing 13-24,
we’ve reproduced the implementation of the <code>Config::new</code> function as it was in
Listing 12-23:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">impl Config {
pub fn new(args: &[String]) -> Result<Config, &'static str> {
if args.len() < 3 {
return Err("not enough arguments");
}
let query = args[1].clone();
let filename = args[2].clone();
let case_sensitive = env::var("CASE_INSENSITIVE").is_err();
Ok(Config { query, filename, case_sensitive })
}
}
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-24: Reproduction of the <code>Config::new</code> function
from Listing 12-23</span></p>
<p>At the time, we said not to worry about the inefficient <code>clone</code> calls because
we would remove them in the future. Well, that time is now!</p>
<p>We needed <code>clone</code> here because we have a slice with <code>String</code> elements in the
parameter <code>args</code>, but the <code>new</code> function doesn’t own <code>args</code>. To return
ownership of a <code>Config</code> instance, we had to clone the values from the <code>query</code>
and <code>filename</code> fields of <code>Config</code> so the <code>Config</code> instance can own its values.</p>
<p>With our new knowledge about iterators, we can change the <code>new</code> function to
take ownership of an iterator as its argument instead of borrowing a slice.
We’ll use the iterator functionality instead of the code that checks the length
of the slice and indexes into specific locations. This will clarify what the
<code>Config::new</code> function is doing because the iterator will access the values.</p>
<p>Once <code>Config::new</code> takes ownership of the iterator and stops using indexing
operations that borrow, we can move the <code>String</code> values from the iterator into
<code>Config</code> rather than calling <code>clone</code> and making a new allocation.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html#using-the-returned-iterator-directly" id="using-the-returned-iterator-directly"><h4>Using the Returned Iterator Directly</h4></a>
<p>Open your I/O project’s <em>src/main.rs</em> file, which should look like this:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn main() {
let args: Vec<String> = env::args().collect();
let config = Config::new(&args).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err);
process::exit(1);
});
// --snip--
}
</code></pre>
<p>We’ll change the start of the <code>main</code> function that we had in Listing 12-24 at
to the code in Listing 13-25. This won’t compile until we update <code>Config::new</code>
as well.</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn main() {
let config = Config::new(env::args()).unwrap_or_else(|err| {
eprintln!("Problem parsing arguments: {}", err);
process::exit(1);
});
// --snip--
}
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-25: Passing the return value of <code>env::args</code> to
<code>Config::new</code></span></p>
<p>The <code>env::args</code> function returns an iterator! Rather than collecting the
iterator values into a vector and then passing a slice to <code>Config::new</code>, now
we’re passing ownership of the iterator returned from <code>env::args</code> to
<code>Config::new</code> directly.</p>
<p>Next, we need to update the definition of <code>Config::new</code>. In your I/O project’s
<em>src/lib.rs</em> file, let’s change the signature of <code>Config::new</code> to look like
Listing 13-26. This still won’t compile because we need to update the function
body.</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">impl Config {
pub fn new(mut args: std::env::Args) -> Result<Config, &'static str> {
// --snip--
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-26: Updating the signature of <code>Config::new</code> to
expect an iterator</span></p>
<p>The standard library documentation for the <code>env::args</code> function shows that the
type of the iterator it returns is <code>std::env::Args</code>. We’ve updated the
signature of the <code>Config::new</code> function so the parameter <code>args</code> has the type
<code>std::env::Args</code> instead of <code>&[String]</code>. Because we’re taking ownership of
<code>args</code> and we’ll be mutating <code>args</code> by iterating over it, we can add the <code>mut</code>
keyword into the specification of the <code>args</code> parameter to make it mutable.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html#using-iterator-trait-methods-instead-of-indexing" id="using-iterator-trait-methods-instead-of-indexing"><h4>Using <code>Iterator</code> Trait Methods Instead of Indexing</h4></a>
<p>Next, we’ll fix the body of <code>Config::new</code>. The standard library documentation
also mentions that <code>std::env::Args</code> implements the <code>Iterator</code> trait, so we know
we can call the <code>next</code> method on it! Listing 13-27 updates the code from
Listing 12-23 to use the <code>next</code> method:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span></p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust"># fn main() {}
# use std::env;
#
# struct Config {
# query: String,
# filename: String,
# case_sensitive: bool,
# }
#
impl Config {
pub fn new(mut args: std::env::Args) -> Result<Config, &'static str> {
args.next();
let query = match args.next() {
Some(arg) => arg,
None => return Err("Didn't get a query string"),
};
let filename = match args.next() {
Some(arg) => arg,
None => return Err("Didn't get a file name"),
};
let case_sensitive = env::var("CASE_INSENSITIVE").is_err();
Ok(Config { query, filename, case_sensitive })
}
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-27: Changing the body of <code>Config::new</code> to use
iterator methods</span></p>
<p>Remember that the first value in the return value of <code>env::args</code> is the name of
the program. We want to ignore that and get to the next value, so first we call
<code>next</code> and do nothing with the return value. Second, we call <code>next</code> to get the
value we want to put in the <code>query</code> field of <code>Config</code>. If <code>next</code> returns a
<code>Some</code>, we use a <code>match</code> to extract the value. If it returns <code>None</code>, it means
not enough arguments were given and we return early with an <code>Err</code> value. We do
the same thing for the <code>filename</code> value.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html#making-code-clearer-with-iterator-adaptors" id="making-code-clearer-with-iterator-adaptors"><h3>Making Code Clearer with Iterator Adaptors</h3></a>
<p>We can also take advantage of iterators in the <code>search</code> function in our I/O
project, which is reproduced here in Listing 13-28 as it was in Listing 12-19:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> {
let mut results = Vec::new();
for line in contents.lines() {
if line.contains(query) {
results.push(line);
}
}
results
}
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-28: The implementation of the <code>search</code>
function from Listing 12-19</span></p>
<p>We can write this code in a more concise way using iterator adaptor methods.
Doing so also lets us avoid having a mutable intermediate <code>results</code> vector. The
functional programming style prefers to minimize the amount of mutable state to
make code clearer. Removing the mutable state might enable a future enhancement
to make searching happen in parallel, because we wouldn’t have to manage
concurrent access to the <code>results</code> vector. Listing 13-29 shows this change:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/lib.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">pub fn search<'a>(query: &str, contents: &'a str) -> Vec<&'a str> {
contents.lines()
.filter(|line| line.contains(query))
.collect()
}
</code></pre>
<p><span class="caption">Listing 13-29: Using iterator adaptor methods in the
implementation of the <code>search</code> function</span></p>
<p>Recall that the purpose of the <code>search</code> function is to return all lines in
<code>contents</code> that contain the <code>query</code>. Similar to the <code>filter</code> example in Listing
13-19, this code uses the <code>filter</code> adaptor to keep only the lines that
<code>line.contains(query)</code> returns <code>true</code> for. We then collect the matching lines
into another vector with <code>collect</code>. Much simpler! Feel free to make the same
change to use iterator methods in the <code>search_case_insensitive</code> function as
well.</p>
<p>The next logical question is which style you should choose in your own code and
why: the original implementation in Listing 13-28 or the version using
iterators in Listing 13-29. Most Rust programmers prefer to use the iterator
style. It’s a bit tougher to get the hang of at first, but once you get a feel
for the various iterator adaptors and what they do, iterators can be easier to
understand. Instead of fiddling with the various bits of looping and building
new vectors, the code focuses on the high-level objective of the loop. This
abstracts away some of the commonplace code so it’s easier to see the concepts
that are unique to this code, such as the filtering condition each element in
the iterator must pass.</p>
<p>But are the two implementations truly equivalent? The intuitive assumption
might be that the more low-level loop will be faster. Let’s talk about
performance.</p>
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