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<ol class="chapter"><li><a href="ch01-00-introduction.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.</strong> Introduction</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch01-01-installation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.1.</strong> Installation</a></li><li><a href="ch01-02-hello-world.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.2.</strong> Hello, World!</a></li><li><a href="ch01-03-how-rust-is-made-and-nightly-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">1.3.</strong> How Rust is Made and “Nightly Rust”</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch02-00-guessing-game-tutorial.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">2.</strong> Guessing Game Tutorial</a></li><li><a href="ch03-00-common-programming-concepts.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.</strong> Common Programming Concepts</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html" class="active"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.1.</strong> Variables and Mutability</a></li><li><a href="ch03-02-data-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.2.</strong> Data Types</a></li><li><a href="ch03-03-how-functions-work.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.3.</strong> How Functions Work</a></li><li><a href="ch03-04-comments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.4.</strong> Comments</a></li><li><a href="ch03-05-control-flow.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">3.5.</strong> Control Flow</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch04-00-understanding-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.</strong> Understanding Ownership</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch04-01-what-is-ownership.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.1.</strong> What is Ownership?</a></li><li><a href="ch04-02-references-and-borrowing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.2.</strong> References & Borrowing</a></li><li><a href="ch04-03-slices.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">4.3.</strong> Slices</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch05-00-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.</strong> Using Structs to Structure Related Data</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch05-01-defining-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.1.</strong> Defining and Instantiating Structs</a></li><li><a href="ch05-02-example-structs.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.2.</strong> An Example Program Using Structs</a></li><li><a href="ch05-03-method-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">5.3.</strong> Method Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch06-00-enums.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.</strong> Enums and Pattern Matching</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch06-01-defining-an-enum.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.1.</strong> Defining an Enum</a></li><li><a href="ch06-02-match.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.2.</strong> The match Control Flow Operator</a></li><li><a href="ch06-03-if-let.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">6.3.</strong> Concise Control Flow with if let</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch07-00-modules.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.</strong> Modules</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch07-01-mod-and-the-filesystem.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.1.</strong> mod and the Filesystem</a></li><li><a href="ch07-02-controlling-visibility-with-pub.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.2.</strong> Controlling Visibility with pub</a></li><li><a href="ch07-03-importing-names-with-use.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">7.3.</strong> Referring to Names in Different Modules</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch08-00-common-collections.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.</strong> Common Collections</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch08-01-vectors.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.1.</strong> Vectors</a></li><li><a href="ch08-02-strings.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.2.</strong> Strings</a></li><li><a href="ch08-03-hash-maps.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">8.3.</strong> Hash Maps</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch09-00-error-handling.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.</strong> Error Handling</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch09-01-unrecoverable-errors-with-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.1.</strong> Unrecoverable Errors with panic!</a></li><li><a href="ch09-02-recoverable-errors-with-result.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.2.</strong> Recoverable Errors with Result</a></li><li><a href="ch09-03-to-panic-or-not-to-panic.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">9.3.</strong> To panic! or Not To panic!</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch10-00-generics.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.</strong> Generic Types, Traits, and Lifetimes</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch10-01-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.1.</strong> Generic Data Types</a></li><li><a href="ch10-02-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.2.</strong> Traits: Defining Shared Behavior</a></li><li><a href="ch10-03-lifetime-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">10.3.</strong> Validating References with Lifetimes</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch11-00-testing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.</strong> Testing</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch11-01-writing-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.1.</strong> Writing tests</a></li><li><a href="ch11-02-running-tests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.2.</strong> Running tests</a></li><li><a href="ch11-03-test-organization.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">11.3.</strong> Test Organization</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch12-00-an-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.</strong> An I/O Project: Building a Command Line Program</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch12-01-accepting-command-line-arguments.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.1.</strong> Accepting Command Line Arguments</a></li><li><a href="ch12-02-reading-a-file.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.2.</strong> Reading a File</a></li><li><a href="ch12-03-improving-error-handling-and-modularity.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.3.</strong> Refactoring to Improve Modularity and Error Handling</a></li><li><a href="ch12-04-testing-the-librarys-functionality.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.4.</strong> Developing the Library’s Functionality with Test Driven Development</a></li><li><a href="ch12-05-working-with-environment-variables.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.5.</strong> Working with Environment Variables</a></li><li><a href="ch12-06-writing-to-stderr-instead-of-stdout.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">12.6.</strong> Writing Error Messages to Standard Error Instead of Standard Output</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch13-00-functional-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.</strong> Functional Language Features: Iterators and Closures</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch13-01-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.1.</strong> Closures: Anonymous Functions that Can Capture Their Environment</a></li><li><a href="ch13-02-iterators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.2.</strong> Processing a Series of Items with Iterators</a></li><li><a href="ch13-03-improving-our-io-project.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.3.</strong> Improving Our I/O Project</a></li><li><a href="ch13-04-performance.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">13.4.</strong> Comparing Performance: Loops vs. Iterators</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch14-00-more-about-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.</strong> More about Cargo and Crates.io</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch14-01-release-profiles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.1.</strong> Customizing Builds with Release Profiles</a></li><li><a href="ch14-02-publishing-to-crates-io.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.2.</strong> Publishing a Crate to Crates.io</a></li><li><a href="ch14-03-cargo-workspaces.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.3.</strong> Cargo Workspaces</a></li><li><a href="ch14-04-installing-binaries.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.4.</strong> Installing Binaries from Crates.io with cargo install</a></li><li><a href="ch14-05-extending-cargo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">14.5.</strong> Extending Cargo with Custom Commands</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch15-00-smart-pointers.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.</strong> Smart Pointers</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch15-01-box.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.1.</strong> Box<T> Points to Data on the Heap and Has a Known Size</a></li><li><a href="ch15-02-deref.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.2.</strong> The Deref Trait Allows Access to the Data Through a Reference</a></li><li><a href="ch15-03-drop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.3.</strong> The Drop Trait Runs Code on Cleanup</a></li><li><a href="ch15-04-rc.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.4.</strong> Rc<T>, the Reference Counted Smart Pointer</a></li><li><a href="ch15-05-interior-mutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.5.</strong> RefCell<T> and the Interior Mutability Pattern</a></li><li><a href="ch15-06-reference-cycles.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">15.6.</strong> Creating Reference Cycles and Leaking Memory is Safe</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch16-00-concurrency.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.</strong> Fearless Concurrency</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch16-01-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.1.</strong> Threads</a></li><li><a href="ch16-02-message-passing.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.2.</strong> Message Passing</a></li><li><a href="ch16-03-shared-state.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.3.</strong> Shared State</a></li><li><a href="ch16-04-extensible-concurrency-sync-and-send.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">16.4.</strong> Extensible Concurrency: Sync and Send</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch17-00-oop.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.</strong> Is Rust an Object-Oriented Programming Language?</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch17-01-what-is-oo.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.1.</strong> What Does Object-Oriented Mean?</a></li><li><a href="ch17-02-trait-objects.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.2.</strong> Trait Objects for Using Values of Different Types</a></li><li><a href="ch17-03-oo-design-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">17.3.</strong> Object-Oriented Design Pattern Implementations</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch18-00-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.</strong> Patterns Match the Structure of Values</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch18-01-all-the-places-for-patterns.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.1.</strong> All the Places Patterns May be Used</a></li><li><a href="ch18-02-refutability.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.2.</strong> Refutability: Whether a Pattern Might Fail to Match</a></li><li><a href="ch18-03-pattern-syntax.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">18.3.</strong> All the Pattern Syntax</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch19-00-advanced-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.</strong> Advanced Features</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch19-01-unsafe-rust.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.1.</strong> Unsafe Rust</a></li><li><a href="ch19-02-advanced-lifetimes.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.2.</strong> Advanced Lifetimes</a></li><li><a href="ch19-03-advanced-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.3.</strong> Advanced Traits</a></li><li><a href="ch19-04-advanced-types.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.4.</strong> Advanced Types</a></li><li><a href="ch19-05-advanced-functions-and-closures.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">19.5.</strong> Advanced Functions & Closures</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="ch20-00-final-project-a-web-server.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.</strong> Final Project: Building a Multithreaded Web Server</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="ch20-01-single-threaded.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.1.</strong> A Single Threaded Web Server</a></li><li><a href="ch20-02-slow-requests.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.2.</strong> How Slow Requests Affect Throughput</a></li><li><a href="ch20-03-designing-the-interface.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.3.</strong> Designing the Thread Pool Interface</a></li><li><a href="ch20-04-storing-threads.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.4.</strong> Creating the Thread Pool and Storing Threads</a></li><li><a href="ch20-05-sending-requests-via-channels.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.5.</strong> Sending Requests to Threads Via Channels</a></li><li><a href="ch20-06-graceful-shutdown-and-cleanup.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">20.6.</strong> Graceful Shutdown and Cleanup</a></li></ol></li><li><a href="appendix-00.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.</strong> Appendix</a></li><li><ol class="section"><li><a href="appendix-01-keywords.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.1.</strong> A - Keywords</a></li><li><a href="appendix-02-operators.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.2.</strong> B - Operators and Symbols</a></li><li><a href="appendix-03-derivable-traits.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.3.</strong> C - Derivable Traits</a></li><li><a href="appendix-04-macros.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.4.</strong> D - Macros</a></li><li><a href="appendix-05-translation.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.5.</strong> E - Translations</a></li><li><a href="appendix-06-newest-features.html"><strong aria-hidden="true">21.6.</strong> F - Newest Features</a></li></ol></li></ol>
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<h1 class="menu-title">The Rust Programming Language</h1>
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<a class="header" href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#variables-and-mutability" id="variables-and-mutability"><h2>Variables and Mutability</h2></a>
<p>As mentioned in Chapter 2, by default variables are <em>immutable</em>. This is one of
many nudges in Rust that encourages you to write your code in a way that takes
advantage of the safety and easy concurrency that Rust offers. However, you
still have the option to make your variables mutable. Let’s explore how and why
Rust encourages you to favor immutability, and why you might want to opt out.</p>
<p>When a variable is immutable, that means once a value is bound to a name, you
can’t change that value. To illustrate, let’s generate a new project called
<em>variables</em> in your <em>projects</em> directory by using <code>cargo new --bin variables</code>.</p>
<p>Then, in your new <em>variables</em> directory, open <em>src/main.rs</em> and replace its
code with the following:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">fn main() {
let x = 5;
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
x = 6;
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}
</code></pre>
<p>Save and run the program using <code>cargo run</code>. You should receive an error
message, as shown in this output:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x`
--> src/main.rs:4:5
|
2 | let x = 5;
| - first assignment to `x`
3 | println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
4 | x = 6;
| ^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable
</code></pre>
<p>This example shows how the compiler helps you find errors in your programs.
Even though compiler errors can be frustrating, they only mean your program
isn’t safely doing what you want it to do yet; they do <em>not</em> mean that you’re
not a good programmer! Experienced Rustaceans still get compiler errors.</p>
<p>The error indicates that the cause of the error is that we <code>cannot assign twice to immutable variable x</code>, because we tried to assign a second value to the
immutable <code>x</code> variable.</p>
<p>It’s important that we get compile-time errors when we attempt to change a
value that we previously designated as immutable because this very situation
can lead to bugs. If one part of our code operates on the assumption that a
value will never change and another part of our code changes that value, it’s
possible that the first part of the code won’t do what it was designed to do.
This cause of bugs can be difficult to track down after the fact, especially
when the second piece of code changes the value only <em>sometimes</em>.</p>
<p>In Rust the compiler guarantees that when we state that a value won’t change,
it really won’t change. That means that when you’re reading and writing code,
you don’t have to keep track of how and where a value might change, which can
make code easier to reason about.</p>
<p>But mutability can be very useful. Variables are immutable only by default; we
can make them mutable by adding <code>mut</code> in front of the variable name. In
addition to allowing this value to change, it conveys intent to future readers
of the code by indicating that other parts of the code will be changing this
variable value.</p>
<p>For example, change <em>src/main.rs</em> to the following:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">fn main() {
let mut x = 5;
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
x = 6;
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>When we run this program, we get the following:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">$ cargo run
Compiling variables v0.1.0 (file:///projects/variables)
Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.30 secs
Running `target/debug/variables`
The value of x is: 5
The value of x is: 6
</code></pre>
<p>Using <code>mut</code>, we’re allowed to change the value that <code>x</code> binds to from <code>5</code> to
<code>6</code>. In some cases, you’ll want to make a variable mutable because it makes the
code more convenient to write than an implementation that only uses immutable
variables.</p>
<p>There are multiple trade-offs to consider, in addition to the prevention of
bugs. For example, in cases where you’re using large data structures, mutating
an instance in place may be faster than copying and returning newly allocated
instances. With smaller data structures, creating new instances and writing in
a more functional programming style may be easier to reason about, so the lower
performance might be a worthwhile penalty for gaining that clarity.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#differences-between-variables-and-constants" id="differences-between-variables-and-constants"><h3>Differences Between Variables and Constants</h3></a>
<p>Being unable to change the value of a variable might have reminded you of
another programming concept that most other languages have: <em>constants</em>. Like
immutable variables, constants are also values that are bound to a name and
are not allowed to change, but there are a few differences between constants
and variables.</p>
<p>First, we aren’t allowed to use <code>mut</code> with constants: constants aren’t only
immutable by default, they’re always immutable.</p>
<p>We declare constants using the <code>const</code> keyword instead of the <code>let</code> keyword,
and the type of the value <em>must</em> be annotated. We’re about to cover types and
type annotations in the next section, “Data Types,” so don’t worry about the
details right now, just know that we must always annotate the type.</p>
<p>Constants can be declared in any scope, including the global scope, which makes
them useful for values that many parts of code need to know about.</p>
<p>The last difference is that constants may only be set to a constant expression,
not the result of a function call or any other value that could only be
computed at runtime.</p>
<p>Here’s an example of a constant declaration where the constant’s name is
<code>MAX_POINTS</code> and its value is set to 100,000. (Rust constant naming convention
is to use all upper case with underscores between words):</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 100_000;
#}</code></pre></pre>
<p>Constants are valid for the entire time a program runs, within the scope they
were declared in, making them a useful choice for values in your application
domain that multiple parts of the program might need to know about, such as the
maximum number of points any player of a game is allowed to earn or the speed
of light.</p>
<p>Naming hardcoded values used throughout your program as constants is useful in
conveying the meaning of that value to future maintainers of the code. It also
helps to have only one place in your code you would need to change if the
hardcoded value needed to be updated in the future.</p>
<a class="header" href="ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#shadowing" id="shadowing"><h3>Shadowing</h3></a>
<p>As we saw in the guessing game tutorial in Chapter 2, we can declare a new
variable with the same name as a previous variable, and the new variable
<em>shadows</em> the previous variable. Rustaceans say that the first variable is
<em>shadowed</em> by the second, which means that the second variable’s value is what
we’ll see when we use the variable. We can shadow a variable by using the same
variable’s name and repeating the use of the <code>let</code> keyword as follows:</p>
<p><span class="filename">Filename: src/main.rs</span></p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">fn main() {
let x = 5;
let x = x + 1;
let x = x * 2;
println!("The value of x is: {}", x);
}
</code></pre></pre>
<p>This program first binds <code>x</code> to a value of <code>5</code>. Then it shadows <code>x</code> by
repeating <code>let x =</code>, taking the original value and adding <code>1</code> so the value of
<code>x</code> is then <code>6</code>. The third <code>let</code> statement also shadows <code>x</code>, taking the
previous value and multiplying it by <code>2</code> to give <code>x</code> a final value of <code>12</code>.
When you run this program, it will output the following:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">$ cargo run
Compiling variables v0.1.0 (file:///projects/variables)
Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.31 secs
Running `target/debug/variables`
The value of x is: 12
</code></pre>
<p>This is different than marking a variable as <code>mut</code>, because unless we use the
<code>let</code> keyword again, we’ll get a compile-time error if we accidentally try to
reassign to this variable. We can perform a few transformations on a value but
have the variable be immutable after those transformations have been completed.</p>
<p>The other difference between <code>mut</code> and shadowing is that because we’re
effectively creating a new variable when we use the <code>let</code> keyword again, we can
change the type of the value, but reuse the same name. For example, say our
program asks a user to show how many spaces they want between some text by
inputting space characters, but we really want to store that input as a number:</p>
<pre><pre class="playpen"><code class="language-rust">
# #![allow(unused_variables)]
#fn main() {
let spaces = " ";
let spaces = spaces.len();
#}</code></pre></pre>
<p>This construct is allowed because the first <code>spaces</code> variable is a string type,
and the second <code>spaces</code> variable, which is a brand-new variable that happens to
have the same name as the first one, is a number type. Shadowing thus spares us
from having to come up with different names, like <code>spaces_str</code> and
<code>spaces_num</code>; instead, we can reuse the simpler <code>spaces</code> name. However, if we
try to use <code>mut</code> for this, as shown here, we’ll get a compile-time error:</p>
<pre><code class="language-rust ignore">let mut spaces = " ";
spaces = spaces.len();
</code></pre>
<p>The error says we’re not allowed to mutate a variable’s type:</p>
<pre><code class="language-text">error[E0308]: mismatched types
--> src/main.rs:3:14
|
3 | spaces = spaces.len();
| ^^^^^^^^^^^^ expected &str, found usize
|
= note: expected type `&str`
found type `usize`
</code></pre>
<p>Now that we’ve explored how variables work, let’s look at more data types they
can have.</p>
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