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<div class="section" id="defining-extension-types-tutorial">
<span id="defining-new-types"></span><h1><span class="section-number">2. </span>Defining Extension Types: Tutorial<a class="headerlink" href="#defining-extension-types-tutorial" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types that
can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a>
and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> types. The code for all extension types follows a
pattern, but there are some details that you need to understand before you
can get started. This document is a gentle introduction to the topic.</p>
<div class="section" id="the-basics">
<span id="dnt-basics"></span><h2><span class="section-number">2.1. </span>The Basics<a class="headerlink" href="#the-basics" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-cpython"><span class="xref std std-term">CPython</span></a> runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject*</span></code></a>, which serves as a “base type” for all Python objects.
The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a> structure itself only contains the object’s
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-reference-count"><span class="xref std std-term">reference count</span></a> and a pointer to the object’s “type object”.
This is where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions
get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up
on an object, a method called, or it is multiplied by another object. These
C functions are called “type methods”.</p>
<p>So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new type
object.</p>
<p>This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a minimal, but
complete, module that defines a new type named <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> inside a C
extension module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code>:</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>What we’re showing here is the traditional way of defining <em>static</em>
extension types. It should be adequate for most uses. The C API also
allows defining heap-allocated extension types using the
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_FromSpec" title="PyType_FromSpec"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_FromSpec()</span></code></a> function, which isn’t covered in this tutorial.</p>
</div>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><Python.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="cm">/* Type-specific fields go here. */</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Example module that creates an extension type."</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_custom</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Now that’s quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem familiar
from the previous chapter. This file defines three things:</p>
<ol class="arabic simple">
<li><p>What a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> <strong>object</strong> contains: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomObject</span></code>
struct, which is allocated once for each <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instance.</p></li>
<li><p>How the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> <strong>type</strong> behaves: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code> struct,
which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter
inspects when specific operations are requested.</p></li>
<li><p>How to initialize the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code> module: this is the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom</span></code>
function and the associated <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custommodule</span></code> struct.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The first bit is:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This is what a Custom object will contain. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code> is mandatory
at the start of each object struct and defines a field called <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_base</span></code>
of type <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject" title="PyObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span></code></a>, containing a pointer to a type object and a
reference count (these can be accessed using the macros <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.Py_REFCNT" title="Py_REFCNT"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_REFCNT</span></code></a>
and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.Py_TYPE" title="Py_TYPE"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE</span></code></a> respectively). The reason for the macro is to
abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in debug builds.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>There is no semicolon above after the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-macro docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code></a> macro.
Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers will complain.</p>
</div>
<p>Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD</span></code> boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for
standard Python floats:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="kt">double</span> <span class="n">ob_fval</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">PyFloatObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The second bit is the definition of the type object.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as above, to
avoid listing all the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> fields that you don’t care
about and also to avoid caring about the fields’ declaration order.</p>
</div>
<p>The actual definition of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object.h</span></code> has
many more <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#type-structs"><span class="std std-ref">fields</span></a> than the definition above. The
remaining fields will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it’s
common practice to not specify them explicitly unless you need them.</p>
<p>We’re going to pick it apart, one field at a time:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_base</span></code>
field mentioned above.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The name of our type. This will appear in the default textual representation of
our objects and in some error messages, for example:</p>
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="s2">""</span> <span class="o">+</span> <span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="gt">Traceback (most recent call last):</span>
File <span class="nb">"<stdin>"</span>, line <span class="m">1</span>, in <span class="n"><module></span>
<span class="gr">TypeError</span>: <span class="n">can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the
name of the type within the module. The module in this case is <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom</span></code> and
the type is <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code>, so we set the type name to <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.Custom</span></code>.
Using the real dotted import path is important to make your type compatible
with the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pydoc.html#module-pydoc" title="pydoc: Documentation generator and online help system."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pydoc</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> modules.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating
new <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instances. <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_itemsize</span></code></a> is
only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> as its base type, you may have problems with multiple
inheritance. A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first
in its <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#class.__bases__" title="class.__bases__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__bases__</span></code></a>, or else it will not be able to call your type’s
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method without getting an error. You can avoid this problem by
ensuring that your type has a larger value for <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize" title="PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_basicsize</span></code></a> than its
base type does. Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your
base type will be <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a>, or else you will be adding data members to
your base type, and therefore increasing its size.</p>
</div>
<p>We set the class flags to <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT" title="Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span></code></a>.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>All types should include this constant in their flags. It enables all of the
members defined until at least Python 3.3. If you need further members,
you will need to OR the corresponding flags.</p>
<p>We provide a doc string for the type in <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_doc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_doc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_doc</span></code></a>.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>To enable object creation, we have to provide a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>
handler. This is the equivalent of the Python method <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>, but
has to be specified explicitly. In this case, we can just use the default
implementation provided by the API function <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a>.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyType_GenericNew</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in
<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom()</span></code>:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This initializes the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type, filling in a number of members
to the appropriate default values, including <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ob_type</span></code> that we initially
set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This adds the type to the module dictionary. This allows us to create
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instances by calling the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> class:</p>
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">custom</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">mycustom</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">custom</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">()</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>That’s it! All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called
<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.c</span></code> and:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"1.0"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"custom.c"</span><span class="p">])])</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>in a file called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code>; then typing</p>
<div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$</span> python setup.py build
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>at a shell should produce a file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom.so</span></code> in a subdirectory; move to
that directory and fire up Python — you should be able to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">custom</span></code> and
play around with Custom objects.</p>
<p>That wasn’t so hard, was it?</p>
<p>Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting. It has no data and
doesn’t do anything. It can’t even be subclassed.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>While this documentation showcases the standard <a class="reference internal" href="../library/distutils.html#module-distutils" title="distutils: Support for building and installing Python modules into an existing Python installation."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">distutils</span></code></a> module
for building C extensions, it is recommended in real-world use cases to
use the newer and better-maintained <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setuptools</span></code> library. Documentation
on how to do this is out of scope for this document and can be found in
the <a class="reference external" href="https://packaging.python.org/tutorials/distributing-packages/">Python Packaging User’s Guide</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.2. </span>Adding data and methods to the Basic example<a class="headerlink" href="#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods. Let’s also make
the type usable as a base class. We’ll create a new module, <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">custom2</span></code> that
adds these capabilities:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><Python.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">"structmember.h"</span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"|OOi"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"first name"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"last name"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"custom number"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"%S %S"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"Return the name, combining the first and last name"</span>
<span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom2.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom2"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Example module that creates an extension type."</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_custom2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This version of the module has a number of changes.</p>
<p>We’ve added an extra include:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><structmember.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This include provides declarations that we use to handle attributes, as
described a bit later.</p>
<p>The <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type now has three data attributes in its C struct,
<em>first</em>, <em>last</em>, and <em>number</em>. The <em>first</em> and <em>last</em> variables are Python
strings containing first and last names. The <em>number</em> attribute is a C integer.</p>
<p>The object structure is updated accordingly:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about object
allocation and deallocation. At a minimum, we need a deallocation method:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>which is assigned to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> member:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python attributes.
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> correctly handles the case where its argument is
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> (which might happen here if <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> failed midway). It then
calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a> member of the object’s type
(computed by <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TYPE(self)</span></code>) to free the object’s memory. Note that
the object’s type might not be <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code>, because the object may
be an instance of a subclass.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>The explicit cast to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">destructor</span></code> above is needed because we defined
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_dealloc</span></code> to take a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> argument, but the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code>
function pointer expects to receive a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> argument. Otherwise,
the compiler will emit a warning. This is object-oriented polymorphism,
in C!</p>
</div>
<p>We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to empty
strings, so we provide a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> implementation:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>and install it in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> member:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing)
objects of the type. It is exposed in Python as the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a> method.
It is not required to define a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> member, and indeed many extension
types will simply reuse <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a> as done in the first
version of the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type above. In this case, we use the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code>
handler to initialize the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes to non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>
default values.</p>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">CustomType</span></code>,
if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed when the type was
called, and is expected to return the instance created. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handlers
always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they often ignore the
arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer (a.k.a. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code>
in C or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> in Python) methods.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p><code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> shouldn’t call <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code> explicitly, as the interpreter
will do it itself.</p>
</div>
<p>The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> implementation calls the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
slot to allocate memory:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
result against <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> before proceeding.</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>We didn’t fill the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> slot ourselves. Rather
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class,
which is <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#object" title="object"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">object</span></code></a> by default. Most types use the default allocation
strategy.</p>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>If you are creating a co-operative <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> (one
that calls a base type’s <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__new__" title="object.__new__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__new__()</span></code></a>),
you must <em>not</em> try to determine what method to call using method resolution
order at runtime. Always statically determine what type you are going to
call, and call its <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> directly, or via
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">type->tp_base->tp_new</span></code>. If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your
type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly.
(Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses
without getting a <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#TypeError" title="TypeError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">TypeError</span></code></a>.)</p>
</div>
<p>We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to provide
initial values for our instance:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"|OOi"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>by filling the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> slot.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> slot is exposed in Python as the
<a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method. It is used to initialize an object after it’s
created. Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments,
and they should return either <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">0</span></code> on success or <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-1</span></code> on error.</p>
<p>Unlike the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code> handler, there is no guarantee that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code>
is called at all (for example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/pickle.html#module-pickle" title="pickle: Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">pickle</span></code></a> module by default
doesn’t call <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> on unpickled instances). It can also be
called multiple times. Anyone can call the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/datamodel.html#object.__init__" title="object.__init__"><code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__()</span></code></a> method on
our objects. For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning
the new attribute values. We might be tempted, for example to assign the
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member like this:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>But this would be risky. Our type doesn’t restrict the type of the
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member, so it could be any kind of object. It could have a
destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the
<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> member; or that destructor could release the
<a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-global-interpreter-lock"><span class="xref std std-term">Global interpreter Lock</span></a> and let arbitrary code run in other
threads that accesses and modifies our object.</p>
<p>To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost
always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts. When
don’t we have to do this?</p>
<ul class="simple">
<li><p>when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1;</p></li>
<li><p>when we know that deallocation of the object <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id5" id="id1">1</a> will neither release
the <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-gil"><span class="xref std std-term">GIL</span></a> nor cause any calls back into our type’s code;</p></li>
<li><p>when decrementing a reference count in a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>
handler on a type which doesn’t support cyclic garbage collection <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id6" id="id2">2</a>.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>We want to expose our instance variables as attributes. There are a
number of ways to do that. The simplest way is to define member definitions:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"first name"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_OBJECT_EX</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"last name"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"custom number"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>and put the definitions in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_members" title="PyTypeObject.tp_members"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_members</span></code></a> slot:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and
documentation string. See the <a class="reference internal" href="newtypes.html#generic-attribute-management"><span class="std std-ref">Generic Attribute Management</span></a> section
below for details.</p>
<p>A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn’t provide a way to restrict the
types of objects that can be assigned to the Python attributes. We expect the
first and last names to be strings, but any Python objects can be assigned.
Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>. Even
though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> values, the
members can be set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> if the attributes are deleted.</p>
<p>We define a single method, <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom.name()</span></code>, that outputs the objects name as the
concatenation of the first and last names.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_AttributeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"%S %S"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The method is implemented as a C function that takes a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> (or
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> subclass) instance as the first argument. Methods always take an
instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword
arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t need to accept
a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is
equivalent to the Python method:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="p">):</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="s2">"</span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2"> </span><span class="si">%s</span><span class="s2">"</span> <span class="o">%</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="bp">self</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Note that we have to check for the possibility that our <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and
<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> members are <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>. This is because they can be deleted, in which
case they are set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>. It would be better to prevent deletion of these
attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings. We’ll see how to
do that in the next section.</p>
<p>Now that we’ve defined the method, we need to create an array of method
definitions:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"Return the name, combining the first and last name"</span>
<span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>(note that we used the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#METH_NOARGS" title="METH_NOARGS"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">METH_NOARGS</span></code></a> flag to indicate that the method
is expecting no arguments other than <em>self</em>)</p>
<p>and assign it to the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_methods" title="PyTypeObject.tp_methods"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_methods</span></code></a> slot:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing. We’ve
written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any assumptions
about the type of the object being created or used, so all we need to do is
to add the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE" title="Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span></code></a> to our class flag definition:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>We rename <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom()</span></code> to <code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyInit_custom2()</span></code>, update the
module name in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/module.html#c.PyModuleDef" title="PyModuleDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyModuleDef</span></code></a> struct, and update the full class
name in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> struct.</p>
<p>Finally, we update our <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file to build the new module:</p>
<div class="highlight-python notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">distutils.core</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">Extension</span>
<span class="n">setup</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">name</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">version</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s2">"1.0"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="n">ext_modules</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="p">[</span>
<span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"custom.c"</span><span class="p">]),</span>
<span class="n">Extension</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s2">"custom2"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"custom2.c"</span><span class="p">]),</span>
<span class="p">])</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section" id="providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.3. </span>Providing finer control over data attributes<a class="headerlink" href="#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and
<code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes are set in the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> example. In the previous
version of our module, the instance variables <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code>
could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that
these attributes always contain strings.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><Python.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">"structmember.h"</span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"|UUi"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"custom number"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Cannot delete the first attribute"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"The first attribute value must be a string"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Cannot delete the last attribute"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"The last attribute value must be a string"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"first name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"last name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"%S %S"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"Return the name, combining the first and last name"</span>
<span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom3.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom3"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Example module that creates an extension type."</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_custom3</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>To provide greater control, over the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes,
we’ll use custom getter and setter functions. Here are the functions for
getting and setting the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> attribute:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Cannot delete the first attribute"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"The first attribute value must be a string"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The getter function is passed a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> object and a “closure”, which is
a void pointer. In this case, the closure is ignored. (The closure supports an
advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This
could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions
that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.)</p>
<p>The setter function is passed the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> object, the new value, and the
closure. The new value may be <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, in which case the attribute is being
deleted. In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if its
new value is not a string.</p>
<p>We create an array of <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a> structures:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"first name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"last name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>and register it in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_getset" title="PyTypeObject.tp_getset"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_getset</span></code></a> slot:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The last item in a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyGetSetDef" title="PyGetSetDef"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyGetSetDef</span></code></a> structure is the “closure” mentioned
above. In this case, we aren’t using a closure, so we just pass <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>.</p>
<p>We also remove the member definitions for these attributes:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"custom number"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>We also need to update the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_init" title="PyTypeObject.tp_init"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_init</span></code></a> handler to only
allow strings <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id7" id="id3">3</a> to be passed:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"|UUi"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>With these changes, we can assure that the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> members are
never <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> so we can remove checks for <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code> values in almost all cases.
This means that most of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> calls can be converted to
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_DECREF" title="Py_DECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_DECREF()</span></code></a> calls. The only place we can’t change these calls is in
the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code> implementation, where there is the possibility that the
initialization of these members failed in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code>.</p>
<p>We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the
initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra definition to the
<code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">setup.py</span></code> file.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.4. </span>Supporting cyclic garbage collection<a class="headerlink" href="#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>Python has a <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-garbage-collection"><span class="xref std std-term">cyclic garbage collector (GC)</span></a> that
can identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero.
This can happen when objects are involved in cycles. For example, consider:</p>
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">l</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">l</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">l</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">del</span> <span class="n">l</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>In this example, we create a list that contains itself. When we delete it, it
still has a reference from itself. Its reference count doesn’t drop to zero.
Fortunately, Python’s cyclic garbage collector will eventually figure out that
the list is garbage and free it.</p>
<p>In the second version of the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> example, we allowed any kind of
object to be stored in the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">first</span></code> or <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">last</span></code> attributes <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id8" id="id4">4</a>.
Besides, in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing
<code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code>, and subclasses may add arbitrary attributes. For any of
those two reasons, <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> objects can participate in cycles:</p>
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">custom3</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="k">class</span> <span class="nc">Derived</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">custom3</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">Custom</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="k">pass</span>
<span class="gp">...</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">n</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Derived</span><span class="p">()</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">n</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">some_attribute</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">n</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>To allow a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> instance participating in a reference cycle to
be properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> type
needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables these slots:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><Python.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf">"structmember.h"</span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_HEAD</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* first name */</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span> <span class="cm">/* last name */</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_GC_UnTrack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_new</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">type</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_alloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">type</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">""</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">char</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"|UUi"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwlist</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="o">&</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">number</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMemberDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"number"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">T_INT</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">offsetof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">number</span><span class="p">),</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"custom number"</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Cannot delete the first attribute"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"The first attribute value must be a string"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">closure</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Cannot delete the last attribute"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="o">!</span><span class="n">PyUnicode_Check</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">))</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyErr_SetString</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyExc_TypeError</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"The last attribute value must be a string"</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">value</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">value</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyGetSetDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"first"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getfirst</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setfirst</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"first name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"last"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">getter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_getlast</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">setter</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_setlast</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"last name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_name</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">Py_UNUSED</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">ignored</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyUnicode_FromFormat</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"%S %S"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"name"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_name</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="s">"Return the name, combining the first and last name"</span>
<span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">}</span> <span class="cm">/* Sentinel */</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">CustomType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom4.Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Custom objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_new</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_new</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_dealloc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">destructor</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_traverse</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">traverseproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_clear</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">inquiry</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_members</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_members</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_getset</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Custom_getsetters</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">custommodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"custom4"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Example module that creates an extension type."</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_custom4</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">custommodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"Custom"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">CustomType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects that could
participate in cycles:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">vret</span> <span class="o">!=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">vret</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the
<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code> function, which is passed to the traversal method. The
<code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">visit()</span></code> function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument
<em>arg</em> passed to the traversal method. It returns an integer value that must be
returned if it is non-zero.</p>
<p>Python provides a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a> macro that automates calling visit
functions. With <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a>, we can minimize the amount of boilerplate
in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_traverse</span></code>:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_traverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">visitproc</span> <span class="n">visit</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="kt">void</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">arg</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_VISIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_traverse" title="PyTypeObject.tp_traverse"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_traverse</span></code></a> implementation must name its
arguments exactly <em>visit</em> and <em>arg</em> in order to use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.Py_VISIT" title="Py_VISIT"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_VISIT()</span></code></a>.</p>
</div>
<p>Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can
participate in cycles:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_CLEAR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">last</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Notice the use of the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> macro. It is the recommended and safe
way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types while decrementing
their reference counts. If you were to call <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_XDECREF" title="Py_XDECREF"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_XDECREF()</span></code></a> instead
on the attribute before setting it to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">NULL</span></code>, there is a possibility
that the attribute’s destructor would call back into code that reads the
attribute again (<em>especially</em> if there is a reference cycle).</p>
<div class="admonition note">
<p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
<p>You could emulate <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> by writing:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">tmp</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">first</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_XDECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">tmp</span><span class="p">);</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always
use <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/refcounting.html#c.Py_CLEAR" title="Py_CLEAR"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_CLEAR()</span></code></a> when deleting an attribute. Don’t
try to micro-optimize at the expense of robustness!</p>
</div>
<p>The deallocator <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_dealloc</span></code> may call arbitrary code when clearing
attributes. It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the function.
Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to untrack the object
from the GC by calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a> before clearing members.
Here is our reimplemented deallocator using <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/gcsupport.html#c.PyObject_GC_UnTrack" title="PyObject_GC_UnTrack"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_GC_UnTrack()</span></code></a>
and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom_clear</span></code>:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">void</span>
<span class="nf">Custom_dealloc</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">CustomObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject_GC_UnTrack</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Custom_clear</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_TYPE</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">)</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">tp_free</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Finally, we add the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC" title="Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC"><code class="xref py py-const docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span></code></a> flag to the class flags:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC</span><span class="p">,</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>That’s pretty much it. If we had written custom <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a> or
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_free" title="PyTypeObject.tp_free"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_free</span></code></a> handlers, we’d need to modify them for cyclic
garbage collection. Most extensions will use the versions automatically provided.</p>
</div>
<div class="section" id="subclassing-other-types">
<h2><span class="section-number">2.5. </span>Subclassing other types<a class="headerlink" href="#subclassing-other-types" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
<p>It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from existing
types. It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since an extension can
easily use the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> it needs. It can be difficult to share
these <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> structures between extension modules.</p>
<p>In this example we will create a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubList</span></code> type that inherits from the
built-in <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#list" title="list"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">list</span></code></a> type. The new type will be completely compatible with
regular lists, but will have an additional <code class="xref py py-meth docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">increment()</span></code> method that
increases an internal counter:</p>
<div class="highlight-pycon notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sublist</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">sublist</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">SubList</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">range</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">extend</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">len</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="p">))</span>
<span class="go">6</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">())</span>
<span class="go">1</span>
<span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">s</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">increment</span><span class="p">())</span>
<span class="go">2</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="cp">#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN</span>
<span class="cp">#include</span> <span class="cpf"><Python.h></span><span class="cp"></span>
<span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyListObject</span> <span class="n">list</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span>
<span class="nf">SubList_increment</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">unused</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">state</span><span class="o">++</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">PyLong_FromLong</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">state</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyMethodDef</span> <span class="n">SubList_methods</span><span class="p">[]</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="s">"increment"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyCFunction</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">SubList_increment</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">METH_NOARGS</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="n">PyDoc_STR</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s">"increment state counter"</span><span class="p">)},</span>
<span class="p">{</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">},</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">SubList_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyTypeObject</span> <span class="n">SubListType</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"sublist.SubList"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"SubList objects"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_basicsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="k">sizeof</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">),</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_itemsize</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_flags</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT</span> <span class="o">|</span> <span class="n">Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">initproc</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">SubList_init</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_methods</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">SubList_methods</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="k">static</span> <span class="n">PyModuleDef</span> <span class="n">sublistmodule</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_name</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"sublist"</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_doc</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s">"Example module that creates an extension type."</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">.</span><span class="n">m_size</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span>
<span class="p">};</span>
<span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_sublist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_base</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">sublistmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"SubList"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>As you can see, the source code closely resembles the <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> examples in
previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them.</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">typedef</span> <span class="k">struct</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyListObject</span> <span class="n">list</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="kt">int</span> <span class="n">state</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span> <span class="n">SubListObject</span><span class="p">;</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type’s
object structure must be the first value. The base type will already include
the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/structures.html#c.PyObject_HEAD" title="PyObject_HEAD"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject_HEAD()</span></code></a> at the beginning of its structure.</p>
<p>When a Python object is a <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubList</span></code> instance, its <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> pointer
can be safely cast to both <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyListObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">SubListObject</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">static</span> <span class="kt">int</span>
<span class="nf">SubList_init</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">SubListObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_init</span><span class="p">((</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="n">self</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">args</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">kwds</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">self</span><span class="o">-></span><span class="n">state</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>We see above how to call through to the <code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__</span></code> method of the base
type.</p>
<p>This pattern is important when writing a type with custom
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> and <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a>
members. The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a> handler should not actually
create the memory for the object with its <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>,
but let the base class handle it by calling its own <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_new" title="PyTypeObject.tp_new"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_new</span></code></a>.</p>
<p>The <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyTypeObject" title="PyTypeObject"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyTypeObject</span></code></a> struct supports a <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="PyTypeObject.tp_base"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_base</span></code></a>
specifying the type’s concrete base class. Due to cross-platform compiler
issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/list.html#c.PyList_Type" title="PyList_Type"><code class="xref c c-type docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyList_Type</span></code></a>; it should be done later in the module initialization
function:</p>
<div class="highlight-c notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">PyMODINIT_FUNC</span>
<span class="nf">PyInit_sublist</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="kt">void</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">PyObject</span><span class="o">*</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">.</span><span class="n">tp_base</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">PyList_Type</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyType_Ready</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">PyModule_Create</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">sublistmodule</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">)</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="n">Py_INCREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">if</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyModule_AddObject</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s">"SubList"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="p">(</span><span class="n">PyObject</span> <span class="o">*</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">)</span> <span class="p">{</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="o">&</span><span class="n">SubListType</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="n">Py_DECREF</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">m</span><span class="p">);</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="nb">NULL</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
<span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">m</span><span class="p">;</span>
<span class="p">}</span>
</pre></div>
</div>
<p>Before calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a>, the type structure must have the
<a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_base" title="PyTypeObject.tp_base"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_base</span></code></a> slot filled in. When we are deriving an
existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_alloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_alloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_alloc</span></code></a>
slot with <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_GenericNew" title="PyType_GenericNew"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_GenericNew()</span></code></a> – the allocation function from the base
type will be inherited.</p>
<p>After that, calling <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/type.html#c.PyType_Ready" title="PyType_Ready"><code class="xref c c-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PyType_Ready()</span></code></a> and adding the type object to the
module is the same as with the basic <code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">Custom</span></code> examples.</p>
<p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
<dl class="footnote brackets">
<dt class="label" id="id5"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a string or a
float.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="label" id="id6"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id2">2</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>We relied on this in the <a class="reference internal" href="../c-api/typeobj.html#c.PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc" title="PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc"><code class="xref c c-member docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">tp_dealloc</span></code></a> handler
in this example, because our type doesn’t support garbage collection.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="label" id="id7"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id3">3</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>We now know that the first and last members are strings, so perhaps we
could be less careful about decrementing their reference counts, however,
we accept instances of string subclasses. Even though deallocating normal
strings won’t call back into our objects, we can’t guarantee that deallocating
an instance of a string subclass won’t call back into our objects.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="label" id="id8"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id4">4</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances, the user
could pass arbitrary <a class="reference internal" href="../library/stdtypes.html#str" title="str"><code class="xref py py-class docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">str</span></code></a> subclasses and therefore still create
reference cycles.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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<h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
<ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#">2. Defining Extension Types: Tutorial</a><ul>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-basics">2.1. The Basics</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example">2.2. Adding data and methods to the Basic example</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes">2.3. Providing finer control over data attributes</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection">2.4. Supporting cyclic garbage collection</a></li>
<li><a class="reference internal" href="#subclassing-other-types">2.5. Subclassing other types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Previous topic</h4>
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<h4>Next topic</h4>
<p class="topless"><a href="newtypes.html"
title="next chapter"><span class="section-number">3. </span>Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics</a></p>
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