<!--Dear translator: please NEVER translate the id or anything inside the tags as they are needed in english by the application Thanks a lot in advance.--> <chapter id="reference"> <title>&turtlelang; Programming Reference</title> <para>This is the reference for &kturtle;'s &turtlelang;. In this chapter we first briefly touch all the <link linkend="different-instructions">different instruction types</link>. Then the <link linkend="commands">commands</link> are explained one by one. Then <link linkend="containers">containers</link>, <link linkend="math">math</link>, <link linkend="questions">questions</link> and <link linkend="controlling-execution">execution controllers</link> are explained. At last you are shown how to create you own commands with <link linkend="learn">learn</link>.</para> <sect1 id="different-instructions"> <title>Different Instruction Types</title> <para>As in any language, &turtlelang; has different types of words and symbols. Here the differences between the types are briefly explained.</para> <sect2 id="command"> <title>Commands</title> <para>Using commands you tell the turtle or &kturtle; to do something. Some commands need input, some give output. <screen> # forward is a command that needs input, in this case the number 100: forward 100 </screen> </para> <para>For a detailed overview of all commands that &kturtle; supports go <link linkend="commands">here</link>.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="number"> <title>Numbers</title> <para>Most likely you already know quite a bit about numbers. The way numbers are used in &kturtle; is not much different from spoken language, or math. </para> <para>We have the so called natural numbers: <userinput>0</userinput>, <userinput>1</userinput>, <userinput>2</userinput>, <userinput>3</userinput>, <userinput>4</userinput>, <userinput>5</userinput>, etc. The negative numbers: <userinput>-1</userinput>, <userinput>-2</userinput>, <userinput>-3</userinput>, etc. And the numbers with decimals, or dot-numbers, for example: <userinput>0.1</userinput>, <userinput>3.14</userinput>, <userinput>33.3333</userinput>, <userinput>-5.05</userinput>, <userinput>-1.0</userinput>. </para> <para>Numbers can be used in <link linkend="math">mathematical calculations</link> and <link linkend="questions">questions</link>. They can also be put in <link linkend="containers">containers</link>.</para> <para>Numbers are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with dark red in the <link linkend="the-code-editor">code editor</link>.</para> </sect2> <!-- constants like pi? --> <sect2 id="string"> <title>Strings</title> <para>First an example: <screen> print "Hello, I'm a string." </screen> In this example <userinput>print</userinput> is a command where <userinput>"Hello, I'm a string."</userinput> is a string. Strings start and end with the <userinput>"</userinput> mark, by these marks &kturtle; knows it is a string.</para> <para>Strings can be put in <link linkend="containers">containers</link>. Yet they cannot be used in <link linkend="math">mathematical calculations</link> and <link linkend="questions">questions</link>.</para> <para>Strings are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with red in the <link linkend="the-code-editor">code editor</link>.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="name"> <title>Names</title> <para>When using the &turtlelang; programming language you create new things. If you write a program you will often need <link linkend="containers">containers</link> and in some cases you need <link linkend="learn">learn</link> to create new commands. When making a new command with <link linkend="learn">learn</link> you will have to specify a name.</para> <para>You can choose any name, as long as it does not already have a meaning. For instance you cannot name a function <link linkend="forward">forward</link>, since that name is already used for an internal command. <screen> # here forward is used as a new command, # but it already has a meaning so # this will produce an error: learn forward { print "this is invalid" } # this works: learn myforward { print "this is ok" } </screen> Names can contain only letters, numbers and underscores (_). Yet they have to start with a letter. Container names have to start with the container prefix ($). <screen> # here forward is used as a container, # starting with the $ prefix, so it does # not conflict with the forward command $forward = 20 print $forward </screen> </para> <para>Containers are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with bolded purple in the <link linkend="the-code-editor">code editor</link>.</para> <para> Please read the documentation on <link linkend="containers">containers</link> and the <link linkend="learn">learn</link> command for a better explanation and more examples. </para> </sect2> <sect2 id="assignment"> <title>Assignments</title> <para>Assignment are done with the <userinput>=</userinput> symbol. In programming languages it is better to read the single <userinput>=</userinput> not as 'equals' but as 'becomes'. The word 'equals' is more appropriate for the <userinput>==</userinput> which is a <link linkend="questions">question</link>.</para> <para>Assignments are generally use for two reasons, (1) to add content <link linkend="containers">containers</link>, and (2) to modify the content of a container. For example: <screen> $x = 10 # the container x now contains the number 10 $W = "My age is: " # the container W now contains the string "My age is: " # this prints the content of the containers 'W' and 'x' on the canvas print $W + $x </screen> </para> <para>For more examples see the section that explains <link linkend="containers">containers</link>.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="math-symbols"> <title>Math Symbols</title> <para>&kturtle; supports all basic math symbols: add (<userinput>+</userinput>), subtract (<userinput>-</userinput>), multiply (<userinput>*</userinput>), divide (<userinput>/</userinput>) and the brackets <userinput>(</userinput> and <userinput>)</userinput>.</para> <para>For a complete explanation and more examples see the <link linkend="math">math</link> section.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="question"> <title>Questions</title> <para>We can ask simple questions on which the answer will be 'true' or 'false'.</para> <para>Using questions is extensively explained in the <link linkend="questions">questions</link> section.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="questions-glue"> <title>Question Glue-Words</title> <para>Questions can be glued together with so called 'question glue'. The glue words are <userinput>and</userinput>, <userinput>or</userinput>, and a special glue-word: <userinput>not</userinput>.</para> <para>Using question-glue is explained in the <link linkend="question-glue">Question Glue</link> section.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="comment"> <title>Comments</title> <para>Comments are lines that start with a <userinput>#</userinput>. For example: <screen> # this is a comment! print "this is not a comment" # the previous line is not a comment, but the next line is: # print "this is not a comment" </screen> We can add comments to the code for ourselves or for someone else to read. Comments are used for: (1) adding a small description to the program, (2) explaining how a piece of code works if it is a bit cryptic, and (3) to 'comment-out' lines of code that should be (temporarily) ignored (see the last line of the example).</para> <para>Commented lines are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with light grey in the <link linkend="the-code-editor">code editor</link>.</para> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="commands"> <title>Commands</title> <para>Using commands you tell the turtle or &kturtle; to do something. Some commands need input, some give output. In this section we explain all the commands that can be used in &kturtle;. Please note that all build in commands we discuss here are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with blue in the <link linkend="the-code-editor">code editor</link>, this can help you to distinguish them.</para> <sect2 id="moving-the-turtle"> <title>Moving the turtle</title> <para>There are several commands to move the turtle over the screen.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="forward" /> <varlistentry> <term>forward (fw)<indexterm><primary>forward (fw)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>forward X</screen> <userinput>forward</userinput> moves the turtle forward by the amount of X pixels. When the pen is down the turtle will leave a trail. <userinput>forward</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>fw</userinput></para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="backward" /> <varlistentry> <term>backward (bw)<indexterm><primary>backward (bw)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>backward X</screen> <userinput>backward</userinput> moves the turtle backward by the amount of X pixels. When the pen is down the turtle will leave a trail. <userinput>backward</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>bw</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="turnleft" /> <varlistentry> <term>turnleft (tl)<indexterm><primary>turnleft (tl)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>turnleft X</screen> <userinput>turnleft</userinput> commands the turtle to turn an amount of X degrees to the left. <userinput>turnleft</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>tl</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="turnright" /> <varlistentry> <term>turnright (tr)<indexterm><primary>turnright (tr)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>turnright X</screen> <userinput>turnright</userinput> the turtle to turn an amount of X degrees to the right. <userinput>turnright</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>tr</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="direction" /> <varlistentry> <term>direction (dir)<indexterm><primary>direction (dir)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>direction X</screen> <userinput>direction</userinput> set the turtle's direction to an amount of X degrees counting from zero, and thus is not relative to the turtle's previous direction. <userinput>direction</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>dir</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="center" /> <varlistentry> <term>center<indexterm><primary>center</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>center</screen> <userinput>center</userinput> moves the turtle to the center on the canvas.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="go" /> <varlistentry> <term>go<indexterm><primary>go</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>go X,Y</screen> <userinput>go</userinput> commands the turtle to go to a certain place on the canvas. This place is X <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm> from the left of the canvas, and Y <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm> form the top of the canvas. </para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="gox" /> <varlistentry> <term>gox<indexterm><primary>gox</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>gox X</screen> <userinput>gox</userinput> using this command the turtle will move to X <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm> from the left of the canvas whilst staying at the same height.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="goy" /> <varlistentry> <term>goy<indexterm><primary>goy</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>goy Y</screen> <userinput>gox</userinput> using this command the turtle will move to Y <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm> from the top of the canvas whilst staying at the same distance from the left border of the canvas.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <note><para>Using the commands <userinput>go</userinput>, <userinput>gox</userinput>, <userinput>goy</userinput> and <userinput>center</userinput> the turtle will not draw a line, no matter if the pen is up or down.</para> </note> </sect2> <sect2 id="locate-the-turtle"> <title>Where is the turtle?</title> <para>There are two commands which return the position of the turtle on the screen.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="getx" /> <varlistentry> <term>getx<indexterm><primary>getx</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para> <userinput>getx</userinput> returns the number of pixels from the left of the canvas to the current position of the turtle.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="gety" /> <varlistentry> <term>gety<indexterm><primary>gety</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para> <userinput>gety</userinput> returns the number of pixels from the top of the canvas to the current position of the turtle.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="pen"> <title>The turtle has a pen</title> <para>The turtle has a pen that draws a line when the turtle moves. There are a few commands to control the pen. In this section we explain these commands.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="penup" /> <varlistentry> <term>penup (pu)<indexterm><primary>penup (pu)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>penup</screen> <userinput>penup</userinput> lifts the pen from the canvas. When the pen is <quote>up</quote> no line will be drawn when the turtle moves. See also <userinput>pendown</userinput>. <userinput>penup</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>pu</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="pendown" /> <varlistentry> <term>pendown (pd)<indexterm><primary>pendown (pd)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>pendown</screen> <userinput>pendown</userinput> presses the pen down on the canvas. When the pen is press <quote>down</quote> on the canvas a line will be drawn when the turtle moves. See also <userinput>penup</userinput>. <userinput>pendown</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>pd</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="setpenwidth" /> <varlistentry> <term>penwidth (pw)<indexterm><primary>penwidth (pw)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>penwidth X</screen> <userinput>penwidth</userinput> sets the width of the pen (the line width) to an amount of X <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm>. <userinput>penwidth</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>pw</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="setfgcolor" /> <varlistentry> <term>pencolor (pc)<indexterm><primary>pencolor (pc)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>pencolor R,G,B</screen> <userinput>pencolor</userinput> sets the color of the pen. <userinput>pencolor</userinput> takes an <glossterm linkend="rgb">RGB combination</glossterm> as input. <userinput>pencolor</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>pc</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="canvas"> <title>Commands to control the canvas</title> <para>There are several commands to control the canvas.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="resizecanvas" /> <varlistentry> <term>canvassize (cs)<indexterm><primary>canvassize (cs)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>canvassize X,Y</screen> With the <userinput>canvassize</userinput> command you can set the size of the canvas. It takes X and Y as input, where X is the new canvas width in <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm>, and Y is the new height of the canvas in <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm>. <userinput>canvassize</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>cs</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="setbgcolor" /> <varlistentry> <term>canvascolor (cc)<indexterm><primary>canvascolor (cc)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>canvascolor R,G,B</screen> <userinput>canvascolor</userinput> set the color of the canvas. <userinput>canvascolor</userinput> takes an <glossterm linkend="rgb">RGB combination</glossterm> as input. <userinput>canvascolor</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>cc</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <!-- <sect3 id="wrapon"> <title>wrapon</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>wrapon</term> <listitem><para><screen>wrapon</screen> With the <userinput>wrapon</userinput> command you can set <glossterm linkend="wrapping">wrapping</glossterm> <quote>on</quote> for the canvas. Please see the glossary if you want to know what <glossterm linkend="wrapping">wrapping</glossterm> is.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect3> <sect3 id="wrapoff"> <title>wrapoff</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>wrapoff</term> <listitem><para><screen>wrapoff</screen> With the <userinput>wrapoff</userinput> command you can set <glossterm linkend="wrapping">wrapping</glossterm> <quote>off</quote> for the canvas: this means the turtle can move off the canvas and can get <quote>lost</quote>. Please see the glossary if you want to know what <glossterm linkend="wrapping">wrapping</glossterm> is.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect3> --> </sect2> <sect2 id="clean"> <title>Commands to clean up</title> <para>There are two commands to clean up the canvas after you have made a mess.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="clear" /> <varlistentry> <term>clear (ccl)<indexterm><primary>clear (ccl)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>clear</screen> With <userinput>clear</userinput> you can clean all drawings from the canvas. All other things remain: the position and angle of the turtle, the canvascolor, the visibility of the turtle, and the canvas size.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="reset" /> <varlistentry> <term>reset<indexterm><primary>reset</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>reset</screen> <userinput>reset</userinput> cleans much more thoroughly than the <userinput>clear</userinput> command. After a <userinput>reset</userinput> command everything is like is was when you had just started &kturtle;. The turtle is positioned at the middle of the screen, the canvas color is white, the turtle draws a black line on the canvas and the canvassize is set to 400 x 400 pixels.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="sprites"> <title>The turtle is a sprite</title> <para>First a brief explanation of what sprites are: sprites are small pictures that can be moved around the screen, like we often see in computer games. Our turtle is also a sprite. For more info see the glossary on <glossterm linkend="sprites">sprites</glossterm>. </para> <para>Next you will find a full overview on all commands to work with sprites.</para> <para>[The current version of &kturtle; does not yet support the use of sprites other than the turtle. With future versions you will be able to change the turtle into something of your own design]</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="spriteshow" /> <varlistentry> <term>spriteshow (ss)<indexterm><primary>spriteshow (ss)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>spriteshow</screen> <userinput>spriteshow</userinput> makes the turtle visible again after it has been hidden. <userinput>spriteshow</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>ss</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="spritehide" /> <varlistentry> <term>spritehide (sh)<indexterm><primary>spritehide (sh)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>spritehide</screen> <userinput>spritehide</userinput> hides the turtle. This can be used if the turtle does not fit in your drawing. <userinput>spritehide</userinput> can be abbreviated to <userinput>sh</userinput>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="writing"> <title>Can the turtle write?</title> <para>The answer is: <quote>yes</quote>. The turtle can write: it writes just about everything you command it to.</para> <variablelist> <anchor id="print" /> <varlistentry> <term>print<indexterm><primary>print</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>print X</screen> The <userinput>print</userinput> command is used to command the turtle to write something on the canvas. <userinput>print</userinput> takes numbers and strings as input. You can <userinput>print</userinput> various numbers and strings using the <quote>+</quote> symbol. See here a small example: <screen> $year = 2003 $author = "Cies" print $author + " started the KTurtle project in " + $year + " and still enjoys working on it!" </screen> </para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="fontsize" /> <varlistentry> <term>fontsize<indexterm><primary>fontsize</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>fontsize X</screen> <userinput>fontsize</userinput> sets the size of the font that is used by <userinput>print</userinput>. <userinput>fontsize</userinput> takes one input which should be a number. The size is set in <glossterm linkend="pixels">pixels</glossterm>.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="random"> <title>A command that rolls dice for you</title> <para>There is one command that rolls dice for you, it is called <userinput>random</userinput>, and it is very useful for some unexpected results.</para> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>random (rnd)<indexterm><primary>random (rnd)</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>random X,Y</screen> <userinput>random</userinput> is a command that takes input and gives output. As input are required two numbers, the first (X) sets the minimum output, the second (Y) sets the maximum. The output is a randomly chosen number that is equal or greater than the minimum and equal or smaller than the maximum. Here a small example: <screen> repeat 500 { $x = random 1,20 forward $x turnleft 10 - $x } </screen> Using the <userinput>random</userinput> command you can add a bit of chaos to your program.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="dialogs"> <title>Input and feedback though dialogs</title> <para>A dialog is a small pop-up window that provides some feedback or asks for some input. &kturtle; has two commands for dialogs, namely: <userinput>message</userinput> and <userinput>ask</userinput></para> <variablelist> <anchor id="message" /> <varlistentry> <term>message<indexterm><primary>message</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>message X</screen> The <userinput>message</userinput> command takes a <link linkend="string">string</link> as input. It shows a pop-up dialog containing the text from the <link linkend="string">string</link>. <screen> message "Cies started the KTurtle project in 2003 and still enjoys working on it!" </screen> </para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> <variablelist> <anchor id="ask" /> <varlistentry> <term>ask<indexterm><primary>ask</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>ask X</screen> <userinput>ask</userinput> takes a <link linkend="string">string</link> as input. It shows a pop-up dialog containing the text from the string, just like the <link linkend="message">message</link>. But in addition to it also puts an input field on the dialog. Through this input filed the user can enter a <link linkend="number">number</link> or a <link linkend="string">string</link> which can be stored in a <link linkend="containers">container</link>. For example <screen> $in = ask "What is you age?" $out = 2003 - $in print "In 2003 you where " + $out + " years old at some point." </screen> When a user cancels the input dialog, or does not enter anything at all the <link linkend="containers">container</link> is emptied.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="containers"> <title>Containers</title> <para>Containers are letters or words that can be used by the programmer to store a number or a text. Containers that contain a number are called <link linkend="variables">variables</link>, containers that can contain text are called <link linkend="string">string</link>. Containers can be identified by the container character <quote>$</quote> that precedes their usage.</para> <para>Containers that are not used contain nothing. An example: <screen> print $N </screen> This will print nothing and you get an error message. </para> <sect2 id="variables"> <title>Variables: number containers</title> <para>Let us start with an example: <screen> $x = 3 print $x </screen> In the first line the letter <userinput>x</userinput> is made into a variable (number container). As you see the value of the variable <userinput>x</userinput> is set to 3. On the second line the value is printed.</para> <para> Note that if we wanted to print an <quote>x</quote> that we should have written <screen> print "x" </screen> </para> <para>That was easy, now a bit harder example: <screen> $A = 2004 $B = 25 $C = $A + $B # the next command prints "2029" print $C backward 30 # the next command prints "2004 plus 25" print $A + " plus " + $B backward 30 # the next command prints "1979" print $A - $B </screen> In the first two lines the variables <userinput>A</userinput> and <userinput>B</userinput> are set to 2004 and 25. On the third line the variable <userinput>C</userinput> is set to <userinput>A + B</userinput>, which is 2029. The rest of the example consists of 3 <userinput>print</userinput> commands with <userinput>backward 30</userinput> in between. The <userinput>backward 30</userinput> is there to make sure every output is on a new line. In this example you also see that variables can be used in <link linkend="math">mathematical calculations</link>.</para> </sect2> <sect2 id="strings"> <title>Containers that contain text (strings)</title> <para>In programming code the regular text is usually started and ended with quotes. As we have already seen: <screen> print "Hello programmer!" </screen> The regular is delimited with quotes. These pieces of regular text we call <link linkend="strings">strings</link>.</para> <para>Strings can also be stored in <link linkend="containers">containers</link> just like <link linkend="number">numbers</link> Strings are a lot like variables. The biggest difference is that they contain text in stead of numbers. For this reason strings cannot be used in <link linkend="math">mathematical calculations</link> and <link linkend="questions">questions</link>. An example of the use of strings: <screen> $x = "Hello " $name = ask "Please enter your name..." print $x + $name + ", how are you?" </screen> On the first line the string <userinput>x</userinput> is set to <quote>Hello </quote>. On the second line the string <userinput>name</userinput> is set to the output of the <userinput>ask</userinput> command. On the third line the program prints a composition of three strings on the canvas.</para> <para>This program ask you to enter your name. When you, for instance, enter the name <quote>Paul</quote>, the program prints <quote>Hello Paul, how are you?</quote>. Please note that the plus (+) is the only math symbol that you can use with strings.</para> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="math"> <title>Can the Turtle do math?</title> <para>Yes, &kturtle; will do your math. You can add (+), subtract (-), multiply (*), and divide (/). Here is an example in which we use all of them: <screen> $a = 20 - 5 $b = 15 * 2 $c = 30 / 30 $d = 1 + 1 print "a: "+$a+", b: "+$b+", c: "+$c+", d: "+$d </screen> Do you know what value a, b, c and d have? Please note the use of the <link linkend="assignment">assignment</link> symbol <userinput>=</userinput>.</para> <para>If you just want a simple calculation to be done you can do something like this: <screen> print 2004-12 </screen></para> <para>Now an example with parentheses: <screen> print ( ( 20 - 5 ) * 2 / 30 ) + 1 </screen> The expressions inside parentheses will be calculated first. In this example, 20-5 will be calculated, then multiplied by 2, divided by 30, and then 1 is added (giving 2).</para> <para>&kturtle; has advanced mathematical features. It knows the number <userinput>pi</userinput> and trigonometrical functions like <userinput>sin</userinput>, <userinput>cos</userinput>, <userinput>tan</userinput>, <userinput>arcsin</userinput>, <userinput>arccos</userinput>, <userinput>arctan</userinput> and the functions <userinput>sqrt</userinput> and <userinput>exp</userinput>. <indexterm><primary>pi</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>sin, cos, tan</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>arcsin, arccos, arctan</primary></indexterm> <indexterm><primary>sqrt, exp</primary></indexterm> </para> <sect2 id="round"> <title>Let the turtle round your numbers</title> <para>If you need integers in calculations, use this function.</para> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>round<indexterm><primary>round</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>round(x)</screen> <userinput>round</userinput> the given number to the nearest integer. <screen> print round(10.8) forward 20 print round(10.3) forward 20 </screen> With this code the turtle will print the numbers 11 and 10.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="questions"> <title>Asking questions, getting answers...</title> <para><link linkend="if"><userinput>if</userinput></link> and <link linkend="while"><userinput>while</userinput></link> are <link linkend="controlling-execution">execution controllers</link> that we will discuss in the next section. In this section we use the <link linkend="if"><userinput>if</userinput></link> command to explain questions.</para> <sect2 id="q"> <title>Questions</title> <para>A simple example of a question: <screen> $x = 6 if $x > 5 { print "hello" } </screen> In this example the question is the <userinput>x > 5</userinput> part. If the answer to this question is 'true' the code between the brackets will be executed. Questions are an important part of programming and often used together with <link linkend="controlling-execution">execution controllers</link>, like <link linkend="if"><userinput>if</userinput></link>. All numbers and <link linkend="variables">variables</link> (number containers) can be compared to each other with questions.</para> <para> Here are all possible questions: <table> <title>Types of questions</title> <tgroup cols="3"> <tbody> <row> <entry><userinput>a == b</userinput></entry> <entry>equals</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> equals <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>a != b</userinput></entry> <entry>not-equals</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> does not equal <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>a > b</userinput></entry> <entry>greater than</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> is greater than <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>a < b</userinput></entry> <entry>smaller than</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> is smaller than <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>a >= b</userinput></entry> <entry>greater than or equals</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> is greater than or equals <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>a <= b</userinput></entry> <entry>smaller than or equals</entry> <entry>answer is <quote>true</quote> if <userinput>a</userinput> is smaller than or equals <userinput>b</userinput></entry> </row> </tbody> </tgroup> </table> </para> </sect2> <sect2 id="question-glue"> <title>Question Glue</title> <para> Question glue-words enable us to glue questions into one big question. <screen> $a = 1 $b = 5 if ($a < $b) and ($b == 5) { print "hello" } </screen> In this example the glue-word <userinput>and</userinput> is used to glue 2 questions (<userinput>a < 5</userinput>, <userinput>b == 5</userinput>) together. If one side of the <userinput>and</userinput> would answer <quote>false</quote> the whole question would answer <quote>false</quote>, because with the glue-word <userinput>and</userinput> both sides need to be <quote>true</quote> in order to answer <quote>true</quote>. Please do not forget to use the brackets around the questions!</para> <para> Here is a schematic overview; a more detailed explanation follows below: <table> <title>Question glue-words</title> <tgroup cols="2"> <tbody> <row> <entry><userinput>and</userinput></entry> <entry>Both sides need to be 'true' in order to answer 'true'</entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>or</userinput></entry> <entry>If one of the sides is 'true' the answer is 'true'</entry> </row> <row> <entry><userinput>not</userinput></entry> <entry>Special case: only works on one question! Changes 'true' into 'false' and 'false' into 'true'.</entry> </row> </tbody> </tgroup> </table> </para> <sect3 id="and"> <title>and</title> <indexterm><primary>and</primary></indexterm> <para>When two questions are glued together with <userinput>and</userinput>, both sides of the <userinput>and</userinput> have to be 'true' in order to result in 'true'. An example: <screen> $a = 1 $b = 5 if (($a < 10) and ($b == 5)) and ($a < $b) { print "hello" } </screen> In this example you see a glued question glued onto an other question.</para> </sect3> <sect3 id="or"> <title>or</title> <indexterm><primary>or</primary></indexterm> <para>If one of the two questions that are glued together with <userinput>or</userinput> is 'true' the result will be 'true'. An example: <screen> $a = 1 $b = 5 if (($a < 10) or ($b == 10)) or ($a == 0) { print "hello" } </screen> In this example you see a glued question glued onto an other question.</para> </sect3> <sect3 id="not"> <title>not</title> <indexterm><primary>not</primary></indexterm> <para><userinput>not</userinput> is a special question glue-word because it only works for one question at the time. <userinput>not</userinput> changes 'true' into 'false' and 'false' into 'true'. An example: <screen> $a = 1 $b = 5 if not (($a < 10) and ($b == 5)) { print "hello" } else { print "not hello ;-)" } </screen> In this example the glued question is 'true' yet the <userinput>not</userinput> changes it to 'false'. So in the end <userinput>"not hello ;-)"</userinput> is printed on the <link linkend="the-canvas">canvas</link>.</para> </sect3> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="controlling-execution"> <title>Controlling execution</title> <para>The execution controllers enable you — as their name implies — to control execution.</para> <para>Execution controlling commands are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with dark green in a bold font type. The brackets are mostly used together with execution controllers and they are <glossterm>highlighted</glossterm> with bolded black.</para> <sect2 id="wait"> <title>Have the turtle wait</title> <para>If you have done some programming in &kturtle; you have might noticed that the turtle can be very quick at drawing. This command makes the turtle wait for a given amount of time.</para> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>wait<indexterm><primary>wait</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>wait X</screen> <userinput>wait</userinput> makes the turtle wait for X seconds. <screen> repeat 36 { forward 5 turnright 10 wait 0.5 } </screen> This code draws a circle, but the turtle will wait half a second after each step. This gives the impression of a slow-moving turtle.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="if"> <title>Execute "if"</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>if<indexterm><primary>if</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>if <link linkend="questions">question</link> { ... }</screen> The code that is placed between the brackets will only be executed <userinput>if</userinput> the answer to the <link linkend="questions">question</link> is <quote>true</quote>. Please read for more information on <link linkend="questions">questions</link> in the <link linkend="questions">question section</link>. <screen> $x = 6 if $x > 5 { print "x is greater than five!" } </screen> On the first line <userinput>x</userinput> is set to 6. On the second line the <link linkend="questions">question</link> <userinput>x > 5</userinput> is asked. Since the answer to this question is <quote>true</quote> the execution controller <userinput>if</userinput> will allow the code between the brackets to be executed</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="else"> <title>If not, in other words: "else"</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>else<indexterm><primary>else</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>if question { ... } else { ... }</screen> <userinput>else</userinput> can be used in addition to the execution controller <link linkend="if"><userinput>if</userinput></link>. The code between the brackets after <userinput>else</userinput> is only executed if the answer to the <link linkend="questions">question</link> that is asked is <quote>false</quote>. <screen> reset $x = 4 if $x > 5 { print "x is greater than five!" } else { print "x is smaller than six!" } </screen> The <link linkend="questions">question</link> asks if <userinput>x</userinput> is greater than 5. Since <userinput>x</userinput> is set to 4 on the first line the answer to the question is <quote>false</quote>. This means the code between the brackets after <userinput>else</userinput> gets executed.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="while"> <title>The "while" loop</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>while<indexterm><primary>while</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>while <link linkend="questions">question</link> { ... }</screen> The execution controller <userinput>while</userinput> is a lot like <link linkend="if"><userinput>if</userinput></link>. The difference is that <userinput>while</userinput> keeps repeating (looping) the code between the brackets until the answer to the <link linkend="questions">question</link> is <quote>false</quote>. <screen> $x = 1 while $x < 5 { forward 10 wait 1 $x = $x + 1 } </screen> On the first line <userinput>x</userinput> is set to 1. On the second line the <link linkend="questions">question</link> <userinput>x < 5</userinput> is asked. Since the answer to this question is <quote>true</quote> the execution controller <userinput>while</userinput> starts executing the code between the brackets until the answer to the <link linkend="questions">question</link> is <quote>false</quote>. In this case the code between the brackets will be executed 4 times, because every time the fifth line is executed <userinput>x</userinput> increases by 1.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="repeat"> <title>The "repeat" loop</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>repeat<indexterm><primary>repeat</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>repeat number { ... }</screen> The execution controller <userinput>repeat</userinput> is a lot like <link linkend="while"><userinput>while</userinput></link>. The difference is that <userinput>repeat</userinput> keeps repeating (looping) the code between the brackets for the given number.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="for"> <title>The "for" loop, a counting loop</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>for<indexterm><primary>for</primary></indexterm><indexterm><primary>step</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>for <userinput>start point</userinput> to <userinput>end point</userinput> { ... }</screen> The <userinput>for</userinput> loop is a <quote>counting loop</quote>, &ie; it keeps count for you. <screen> for $x = 1 to 10 { print $x * 7 forward 15 } </screen> Every time the code between the brackets is executed the <userinput>x</userinput> is increased by 1, until <userinput>x</userinput> reaches the value of 10. The code between the brackets prints the <userinput>x</userinput> multiplied by 7. After this program finishes its execution you will see the times table of 7 on the canvas. </para> <para> The default step size of a loop is 1, you can use an other value with <screen>for <userinput>start point</userinput> to <userinput>end point</userinput> step <userinput>step size</userinput> { ... }</screen></para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="break"> <title>Leave a loop</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>break<indexterm><primary>break</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>break</screen> Terminates the current loop immediately and transfers control to the statement immediately following that loop</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> <sect2 id="exit"> <title>Stop the turtle</title> <variablelist> <varlistentry> <term>exit<indexterm><primary>exit</primary></indexterm></term> <listitem><para><screen>exit</screen> Finishes the execution of the code.</para></listitem> </varlistentry> </variablelist> </sect2> </sect1> <sect1 id="learn"> <title>Create your own commands with <quote>learn</quote></title> <para><userinput>learn</userinput><indexterm><primary>learn</primary></indexterm> is a very special command, because it is used to create your own commands. The command you create can take <glossterm linkend="input-output">input</glossterm> and return <glossterm linkend="input-output">output</glossterm>. Let us take a look at how a new command is created: <screen> learn circle $x { repeat 36 { forward $x turnleft 10 } } </screen> The new command is called <userinput>circle</userinput>. <userinput>circle</userinput> takes one <glossterm linkend="input-output">input</glossterm>, a number, to set the size of the circle. <userinput>circle</userinput> returns no <glossterm linkend="input-output">output</glossterm>. The <userinput>circle</userinput> command can now be used like a normal command in the rest of the code. See this example: <screen> learn circle $X { repeat 36 { forward $X turnleft 10 } } go 200,200 circle 20 go 300,200 circle 40 </screen> </para> <para>In the next example, a command with a return value is created. <screen> reset learn multiplyBySelf $n { $r = $n * $n return $r } $i = ask "Please enter a number and press OK" print $i + " multiplied by itself is: " + multiplyBySelf $i </screen> In this example a new command called <userinput>multiplyBySelf</userinput> is created. The input of this command is multiplied by itself and then returned, using the <anchor id="return" /><userinput>return</userinput> command. The <userinput>return</userinput> command is the way to output a value from a function you have created. </para> <para>Commands can have more than one <glossterm linkend="input-output">input</glossterm>. In the next example, a command that draws a rectangle is created. <screen> learn box $X, $Y { forward $Y turnright 90 forward $X turnright 90 forward $Y turnright 90 forward $X turnright 90 } </screen> Now you can run <userinput>box 50, 100</userinput> and the turtle will draw a rectangle on the canvas. </para> </sect1> </chapter>