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  <div class="section" id="generic-operating-system-services">
<span id="allos"></span><h1>15. Generic Operating System Services<a class="headerlink" href="#generic-operating-system-services" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
<p>The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to operating system
features that are available on (almost) all operating systems, such as files and
a clock.  The interfaces are generally modeled after the Unix or C interfaces,
but they are available on most other systems as well.  Here&#8217;s an overview:</p>
<div class="toctree-wrapper compound">
<ul>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html">15.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">os</span></tt> &#8212; Miscellaneous operating system interfaces</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables">15.1.1. File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-parameters">15.1.2. Process Parameters</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-object-creation">15.1.3. File Object Creation</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#file-descriptor-operations">15.1.4. File Descriptor Operations</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#open-flag-constants">15.1.4.1. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">open()</span></tt> flag constants</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#files-and-directories">15.1.5. Files and Directories</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#process-management">15.1.6. Process Management</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-system-information">15.1.7. Miscellaneous System Information</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="os.html#miscellaneous-functions">15.1.8. Miscellaneous Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html">15.2. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">io</span></tt> &#8212; Core tools for working with streams</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#overview">15.2.1. Overview</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#text-i-o">15.2.1.1. Text I/O</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#binary-i-o">15.2.1.2. Binary I/O</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-i-o">15.2.1.3. Raw I/O</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#high-level-module-interface">15.2.2. High-level Module Interface</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#in-memory-streams">15.2.2.1. In-memory streams</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#class-hierarchy">15.2.3. Class hierarchy</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#i-o-base-classes">15.2.3.1. I/O Base Classes</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#raw-file-i-o">15.2.3.2. Raw File I/O</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#buffered-streams">15.2.3.3. Buffered Streams</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id1">15.2.3.4. Text I/O</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#performance">15.2.4. Performance</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id2">15.2.4.1. Binary I/O</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#id3">15.2.4.2. Text I/O</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#multi-threading">15.2.4.3. Multi-threading</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="io.html#reentrancy">15.2.4.4. Reentrancy</a></li>
</ul>
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</ul>
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<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="time.html">15.3. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">time</span></tt> &#8212; Time access and conversions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html">15.4. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">argparse</span></tt> &#8212; Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#example">15.4.1. Example</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#creating-a-parser">15.4.1.1. Creating a parser</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#adding-arguments">15.4.1.2. Adding arguments</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parsing-arguments">15.4.1.3. Parsing arguments</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argumentparser-objects">15.4.2. ArgumentParser objects</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#description">15.4.2.1. description</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#epilog">15.4.2.2. epilog</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#add-help">15.4.2.3. add_help</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prefix-chars">15.4.2.4. prefix_chars</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#fromfile-prefix-chars">15.4.2.5. fromfile_prefix_chars</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-default">15.4.2.6. argument_default</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parents">15.4.2.7. parents</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#formatter-class">15.4.2.8. formatter_class</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#conflict-handler">15.4.2.9. conflict_handler</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#prog">15.4.2.10. prog</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#usage">15.4.2.11. usage</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-add-argument-method">15.4.3. The add_argument() method</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#name-or-flags">15.4.3.1. name or flags</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#action">15.4.3.2. action</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#nargs">15.4.3.3. nargs</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#const">15.4.3.4. const</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#default">15.4.3.5. default</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#type">15.4.3.6. type</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#choices">15.4.3.7. choices</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#required">15.4.3.8. required</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#help">15.4.3.9. help</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#metavar">15.4.3.10. metavar</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#dest">15.4.3.11. dest</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-parse-args-method">15.4.4. The parse_args() method</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#option-value-syntax">15.4.4.1. Option value syntax</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#invalid-arguments">15.4.4.2. Invalid arguments</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#arguments-containing">15.4.4.3. Arguments containing <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">-</span></tt></a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-abbreviations">15.4.4.4. Argument abbreviations</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#beyond-sys-argv">15.4.4.5. Beyond <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">sys.argv</span></tt></a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#the-namespace-object">15.4.4.6. The Namespace object</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#other-utilities">15.4.5. Other utilities</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#sub-commands">15.4.5.1. Sub-commands</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#filetype-objects">15.4.5.2. FileType objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#argument-groups">15.4.5.3. Argument groups</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#mutual-exclusion">15.4.5.4. Mutual exclusion</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#parser-defaults">15.4.5.5. Parser defaults</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#printing-help">15.4.5.6. Printing help</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#partial-parsing">15.4.5.7. Partial parsing</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#customizing-file-parsing">15.4.5.8. Customizing file parsing</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#exiting-methods">15.4.5.9. Exiting methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="argparse.html#upgrading-optparse-code">15.4.6. Upgrading optparse code</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html">15.5. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt> &#8212; Parser for command line options</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#background">15.5.1. Background</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#terminology">15.5.1.1. Terminology</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-options-for">15.5.1.2. What are options for?</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#what-are-positional-arguments-for">15.5.1.3. What are positional arguments for?</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#tutorial">15.5.2. Tutorial</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#understanding-option-actions">15.5.2.1. Understanding option actions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#the-store-action">15.5.2.2. The store action</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#handling-boolean-flag-options">15.5.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-actions">15.5.2.4. Other actions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#default-values">15.5.2.5. Default values</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#generating-help">15.5.2.6. Generating help</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l4"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#grouping-options">15.5.2.6.1. Grouping Options</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#printing-a-version-string">15.5.2.7. Printing a version string</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-optparse-handles-errors">15.5.2.8. How <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt> handles errors</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#putting-it-all-together">15.5.2.9. Putting it all together</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#reference-guide">15.5.3. Reference Guide</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#creating-the-parser">15.5.3.1. Creating the parser</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#populating-the-parser">15.5.3.2. Populating the parser</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-options">15.5.3.3. Defining options</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-attributes">15.5.3.4. Option attributes</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-actions">15.5.3.5. Standard option actions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#standard-option-types">15.5.3.6. Standard option types</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#parsing-arguments">15.5.3.7. Parsing arguments</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser">15.5.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#conflicts-between-options">15.5.3.9. Conflicts between options</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#cleanup">15.5.3.10. Cleanup</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#other-methods">15.5.3.11. Other methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#option-callbacks">15.5.4. Option Callbacks</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#defining-a-callback-option">15.5.4.1. Defining a callback option</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#how-callbacks-are-called">15.5.4.2. How callbacks are called</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#raising-errors-in-a-callback">15.5.4.3. Raising errors in a callback</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-1-trivial-callback">15.5.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-2-check-option-order">15.5.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized">15.5.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition">15.5.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-5-fixed-arguments">15.5.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#callback-example-6-variable-arguments">15.5.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#extending-optparse">15.5.5. Extending <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">optparse</span></tt></a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-types">15.5.5.1. Adding new types</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="optparse.html#adding-new-actions">15.5.5.2. Adding new actions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="getopt.html">15.6. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">getopt</span></tt> &#8212; C-style parser for command line options</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html">15.7. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">logging</span></tt> &#8212; Logging facility for Python</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logger-objects">15.7.1. Logger Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#handler-objects">15.7.2. Handler Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#formatter-objects">15.7.3. Formatter Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#filter-objects">15.7.4. Filter Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-objects">15.7.5. LogRecord Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#logrecord-attributes">15.7.6. LogRecord attributes</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#loggeradapter-objects">15.7.7. LoggerAdapter Objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#thread-safety">15.7.8. Thread Safety</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#module-level-functions">15.7.9. Module-Level Functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.html#integration-with-the-warnings-module">15.7.10. Integration with the warnings module</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toctree-l1"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html">15.8. <tt class="docutils literal"><span class="pre">logging.config</span></tt> &#8212; Logging configuration</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-functions">15.8.1. Configuration functions</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l2"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#configuration-dictionary-schema">15.8.2. Configuration dictionary schema</a><ul>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#dictionary-schema-details">15.8.2.1. Dictionary Schema Details</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#incremental-configuration">15.8.2.2. Incremental Configuration</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#object-connections">15.8.2.3. Object connections</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#user-defined-objects">15.8.2.4. User-defined objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-external-objects">15.8.2.5. Access to external objects</a></li>
<li class="toctree-l3"><a class="reference internal" href="logging.config.html#access-to-internal-objects">15.8.2.6. Access to internal objects</a></li>
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